Faughanvale parishioners’ nine–month exile from their parish church has finally come to an end following the completion of a major restoration project to repair damage caused during last August’s flooding in the North West.

 

St Canice’s Church – which was one of many properties in Eglinton affected by the downpour – was re–dedicated on Friday evening at a Service of Thanksgiving and Dedication led by the Bishop of Derry and Raphoe, the Rt Rev Ken Good, and the Rector of Faughanvale Parish, the Rev Canon Paul Hoey.

 

Among those in the congregation were people who had helped redesign and rebuild the church. During the service, the Churchwardens presented the Bishop with a list of gifts and invited him to dedicate them to the service of God, along with a new place for prayer in the vestry.

 

As the choir sang ‘We love the place, O God’, Bishop Good and Canon Hoey processed to the baptismal font, the pulpit and then the communion table, and recited prayers which symbolised the dedication of the whole of the church. The new organ was also dedicated during Friday’s service.

 

One of the main surprises of the evening came when Canon Hoey left the front of the church and climbed up to the gallery to play the new instrument. Another came when one of his predecessors as Rector of Faughanvale, the Rev Canon Charles Leeke, who had served in the parish from 1986 to 1997, rose to deliver the Old Testament reading.

 

Bishop Good told the congregation that ‘continuity and surprise’ would be the theme of his sermon for the service “because I think that’s what this building is about”.

 

The Bishop thanked Faughanvale parishioners for their presence at the service, and for their faithful attendance during the temporary relocation to the village school. He recalled the events of August 22nd, last year, when a violent downpour brought flooding to various parts of counties Londonderry, Tyrone and Donegal. A number of families were still unable to return to flood–damaged homes in Eglinton and elsewhere, and Faughanvale Parish Hall was still in need of remedial work. “This Parish of St Canice bore the marks of flood damage as upsettingly as anywhere,” the Bishop said.

 

In his sermon, the Bishop referred to notable moments in St Canice’s history – its consecration in 1826, the addition of the sanctuary in 1899, and the completion of other significant works in 1991. “A church like this is a living place that evolves and adapts,” he said, “depending on the needs of the time, and tonight is part of that development.”

 

Bishop Good said he was delighted with the new–look church. “It is bright, clean, attractive and welcoming – it is fit for purpose – and I want to pay tribute to all those who have been involved: the Rector, the Select Vestry, the parishioners, the craftsmen, the designers, the trades people, the artists, all who had a part to play in bringing this to fruition. It is a job well done.

 

“There’s been a lot of heart–searching, decision–making and generosity but I commend you all for a noble and imaginative project brought to a successful conclusion. There can be a great sense of achievement tonight.”

 

Bishop Good said St Canice was one of the “twelve intrepid friends” who accompanied St Columba when he left for Iona. “Columba and Canice accepted from God a missional task to make Christ known and to draw people to him. I want to suggest, tonight, that they did so with on the one hand continuity and on the other hand surprise. That’s the theme of my sermon tonight, ‘continuity and surprise’, because I think that’s what this building is about.

 

“First of all, continuity. The Christian faith is based on historical fact. It is based on the birth, death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus Christ – fact. It is based on the coming in power of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost – fact. It is based on the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, on the sacraments of baptism and of the Lord’s Supper – Holy Communion. It is based on the catholic or universal creeds. Columba and Canice knew that. That’s what they proclaimed. And we, today, like them, hold on to the unchanging, historical realities of faith. This building at its core reflects those essentials and continues in them,” the Bishop said. “But there also needs to be – in the presenting of the Gospel – something topical, relevant and maybe evening surprising … We should be a church with surprises – not stale, not dull, not unimaginative.”

 

Bishop Good said St Canice’s Church could continue in the faith but could also surprise people when they came by the vitality that its parishioners showed in their faith in Christ. “I want to suggest that this Parish of St Canice – in the tradition of Canice and Columba – is holding onto the continuity and the essentials of the Gospel – the faith, the worship – but also you have an element of surprise about you. And this building now conveys that: there’s something fresh, something creative, there’s something about meeting the needs of people in the community.

 

“Let me say this. In the way you responded to the floods there was an element of surprise in that: where people saw Jesus – not just you but other churches, too. There was something about seeing Jesus in the generosity you have shown. Dare I say there has even been something of Jesus seen in the Elvis Service? That was a surprise. There was something of a surprise – and seeing Jesus – in the ten pounds that everyone was given; that was good. Let’s see what happens to it.

 

“And there are going to be more surprises,” Bishop Good told parishioners, “because your Rector is made that way – he can’t help it. I do want to pay tribute to him because he is creative, he is imaginative. He does believe that God is a God of surprises. And let’s go with him, because we need to be creative and imaginative and fresh in ways of honouring Christ and drawing people, so that they, too, can see Jesus.”

 

There was more to come, Bishop Good told the congregation – the hall was “a major project” – “but the Lord is going ahead of you. There is continuity in this place; there will also be surprises. May God bless you.”

  

Lincoln Cathedral (in full The Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Lincoln, or sometimes St. Mary's Cathedral) is a cathedral located in Lincoln in England and seat of the Bishop of Lincoln in the Church of England. Building commenced in 1088 and continued in several phases throughout the medieval period. It was reputedly the tallest building in the world for 238 years (1311–1549).[1][2][3] The central spire collapsed in 1549 and was not rebuilt. The cathedral is the third largest in Britain (in floor space) after St Paul's and York Minster, being 484 by 271 feet (148 by 83 m). It is highly regarded by architectural scholars; the eminent Victorian writer John Ruskin declared: "I have always held... that the cathedral of Lincoln is out and out the most precious piece of architecture in the British Isles and roughly speaking worth any two other cathedrals we have."

 

Remigius de Fécamp, the first Bishop of Lincoln, moved the episcopal seat (cathedra) there "some time between 1072 and 1092"[4] About this, James Essex writes that "Remigius ... laid the foundations of his Cathedral in 1088" and "it is probable that he, being a Norman, employed Norman masons to superintend the building ... though he could not complete the whole before his death."[5] Before that, writes B. Winkles, "It is well known that Remigius appropriated the parish church of St Mary Magdalene in Lincoln, although it is not known what use he made of it

 

Up until then St. Mary's Church in Stow was considered to be the "mother church"[7] of Lincolnshire[8] (although it was not a cathedral, because the seat of the diocese was at Dorchester Abbey in Dorchester-on-Thames, Oxfordshire). However, Lincoln was more central to a diocese that stretched from the Thames to the Humber.

 

Bishop Remigius built the first Lincoln Cathedral on the present site, finishing it in 1092 and then dying on 9 May of that year,[9] two days before it was consecrated. In 1141, the timber roofing was destroyed in a fire. Bishop Alexander rebuilt and expanded the cathedral, but it was mostly destroyed by an earthquake about forty years later, in 1185 (dated by the BGS as occurring 15 April 1185).[6][10] The earthquake was one of the largest felt in the UK: it has an estimated magnitude of over 5. The damage to the cathedral is thought to have been very extensive: the Cathedral is described as having "split from top to bottom"; in the current building, only the lower part of the west end and of its two attached towers remain of the pre-earthquake cathedral.[10] Some (Kidson, 1986; Woo, 1991) have suggested that the damage to Lincoln Cathedral was probably exaggerated by poor construction or design; with the actual collapse most probably caused by a vault collapse.[10]

 

After the earthquake, a new bishop was appointed. He was Hugh de Burgundy of Avalon, France, who became known as St Hugh of Lincoln. He began a massive rebuilding and expansion programme. Rebuilding began with the choir (St Hugh's Choir) and the eastern transepts between 1192 and 1210.[11] The central nave was then built in the Early English Gothic style. Lincoln Cathedral soon followed other architectural advances of the time – pointed arches, flying buttresses and ribbed vaulting were added to the cathedral. This allowed support for incorporating larger windows. There are thirteen bells in the south-west tower, two in the north-west tower, and five in the central tower (including Great Tom). Accompanying the cathedral's large bell, Great Tom of Lincoln, is a quarter-hour striking clock. The clock was installed in the early 19th century.[12] The two large stained glass rose windows, the matching Dean's Eye and Bishop's Eye, were added to the cathedral during the late Middle Ages. The former, the Dean's Eye in the north transept dates from the 1192 rebuild begun by St Hugh, finally being completed in 1235. The latter, the Bishop's eye, in the south transept was reconstructed a hundred years later in 1330.[13] A contemporary record, “The Metrical Life of St Hugh”, refers to the meaning of these two windows (one on the dark, north, side and the other on the light, south, side of the building):

 

"For north represents the devil, and south the Holy Spirit and it is in these directions that the two eyes look. The bishop faces the south in order to invite in and the dean the north in order to shun; the one takes care to be saved, the other takes care not to perish. With these Eyes the cathedral’s face is on watch for the candelabra of Heaven and the darkness of Lethe (oblivion)."

 

After the additions of the Dean's eye and other major Gothic additions it is believed some mistakes in the support of the tower occurred, for in 1237 the main tower collapsed. A new tower was soon started and in 1255 the Cathedral petitioned Henry III to allow them to take down part of the town wall to enlarge and expand the Cathedral, including the rebuilding of the central tower and spire. They replaced the small rounded chapels (built at the time of St Hugh) with a larger east end to the cathedral. This was to handle the increasing number of pilgrims to the Cathedral, who came to worship at the shrine of Hugh of Lincoln.

 

In 1290 Eleanor of Castile died and King Edward I of England decided to honour her, his Queen Consort, with an elegant funeral procession. After her body had been embalmed, which in the 13th century involved evisceration, Eleanor's viscera were buried in Lincoln cathedral and Edward placed a duplicate of the Westminster Abbey tomb there. The Lincoln tomb's original stone chest survives; its effigy was destroyed in the 17th century and replaced with a 19th-century copy. On the outside of Lincoln Cathedral are two prominent statues often identified as Edward and Eleanor, but these images were heavily restored in the 19th century and they were probably not originally intended to depict the couple.

 

Between 1307 and 1311 the central tower was raised to its present height of 271 feet (83 m). The western towers and front of the cathedral were also improved and heightened. At this time, a tall lead-encased wooden spire topped the central tower but was blown down in a storm in 1549. With its spire, the tower reputedly reached a height of 525 feet (160 m) (which would have made it the world's tallest structure, surpassing the Great Pyramid of Giza, which held the record for almost 4,000 years). Although there is dissent,[1] this height is agreed by most sources.[14][15][16][17][18] Other additions to the cathedral at this time included its elaborate carved screen and the 14th-century misericords, as was the Angel Choir. For a large part of the length of the cathedral, the walls have arches in relief with a second layer in front to give the illusion of a passageway along the wall. However the illusion does not work, as the stonemason, copying techniques from France, did not make the arches the correct length needed for the illusion to be effective.

 

In 1398 John of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford founded a chantry in the cathedral to pray for the welfare of their souls. In the 15th century the building of the cathedral turned to chantry or memorial chapels. The chapels next to the Angel Choir were built in the Perpendicular style, with an emphasis on strong vertical lines, which survive today in the window tracery and wall panelling.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Cathedral

John 17:1 These words spake Jesus, and lifted up his eyes to heaven, and said, Father, the hour is come; glorify thy Son, that thy Son also may glorify thee: 2 As thou hast given him power over all flesh, that he should give eternal life to as many as thou hast given him. 3 And this is life eternal, that they might know thee the only true God, and Jesus Christ, whom thou hast sent. 4 I have glorified thee on the earth: I have finished the work which thou gavest me to do. 5 And now, O Father, glorify thou me with thine own self with the glory which I had with thee before the world was.

 

6 I have manifested thy name unto the men which thou gavest me out of the world: thine they were, and thou gavest them me; and they have kept thy word. 7 Now they have known that all things whatsoever thou hast given me are of thee. 8 For I have given unto them the words which thou gavest me; and they have received them, and have known surely that I came out from thee, and they have believed that thou didst send me. 9 I pray for them: I pray not for the world, but for them which thou hast given me; for they are thine. 10 And all mine are thine, and thine are mine; and I am glorified in them.

 

11 And now I am no more in the world, but these are in the world, and I come to thee. Holy Father, keep through thine own name those whom thou hast given me, that they may be one, as we are. 12 While I was with them in the world, I kept them in thy name: those that thou gavest me I have kept, and none of them is lost, but the son of perdition; that the scripture might be fulfilled. 13 And now come I to thee; and these things I speak in the world, that they might have my joy fulfilled in themselves. 14 I have given them thy word; and the world hath hated them, because they are not of the world, even as I am not of the world. 15 I pray not that thou shouldest take them out of the world, but that thou shouldest keep them from the evil. 16 They are not of the world, even as I am not of the world.

 

17 Sanctify them through thy truth: thy word is truth. 18 As thou hast sent me into the world, even so have I also sent them into the world. 19 And for their sakes I sanctify myself, that they also might be sanctified through the truth.

 

20 Neither pray I for these alone, but for them also which shall believe on me through their word; 21 That they all may be one; as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also may be one in us: that the world may believe that thou hast sent me. 22 And the glory which thou gavest me I have given them; that they may be one, even as we are one: 23 I in them, and thou in me, that they may be made perfect in one; and that the world may know that thou hast sent me, and hast loved them, as thou hast loved me.

 

24 Father, I will that they also, whom thou hast given me, be with me where I am; that they may behold my glory, which thou hast given me: for thou lovedst me before the foundation of the world. 25 O righteous Father, the world hath not known thee: but I have known thee, and these have known that thou hast sent me. 26 And I have declared unto them thy name, and will declare it: that the love wherewith thou hast loved me may be in them, and I in them.

 

You Can’t Grow Morning Glories in the Dark

by Kathie Luther

What a beautiful log home! It’s so bright that the logs glow with an amber color and a glorious light spills out from the windows. It is so rich looking that I can tell that someone important must live here. Look at all these mobile homes around it! There must be at least 40 acres full of homes in this trailer park. That one in the front has a garden by it which includes a sturdy metal fence made to grow morning glories on. All these places look vacant, but all are for rent. The landlord must live in the log home.

 

Wait a second! There’s an old rundown building way in the back. Let’s go look. Why, it’s only a shack that should’ve been torn down long ago! Let’s look inside. There’s a dark, obscure little room way back in the corner with a nameplate on the door. You’re kidding me! Somebody actually lives here? I’ll brush off all this dirt on their names. Let’s see, hmmmm. It says, "Mr. And Mrs. D. Feated Christian." I knock and two of the most pathetic excuses for human beings invite me in. We talk and I realize that they were having a private pity party there in the dark. They complained about their poverty and they both claimed to be orphans by saying that their Father was dead. As I listened, I realized that something was very wrong. They lived futile, fruitless lives that lacked joy and power.

 

I had a feeling that if we investigated this further we would discover the problem. So we took a walk to look around. We came up to the mobile home with the garden. They said that it was reserved only for someone who would "grow morning glories on the fence." Since they lived in such darkness, they never even thought of moving up to this nice place.

 

So we walked a little farther and came to the fabulous log home full of light. "Let’s go in and meet the landlord," I said. The office was open, so we went right in. Nobody was home, but there were obvious clues as to the identity of the landlord. For one thing the desk was piled high with mail all addressed to "Mr. and Mrs. Victor E. Us Christian." These were all applications for renting out the wonderful homes in this lovely park. This place would be a prospering business, a literal boomtown if only the landlord would get busy!

 

Then we saw it! An entire wall full of photos. We all stared in surprise! Every photo had Mr. and Mrs. D. Feated Christian in it, but they looked so different, so radiant. The stunning solid gold nameplate that was the focal point of this display also boasted proudly, "Mr. and Mrs. Victor E. Us Christian!" What in the world was going on?

 

A Bible lay open on the desk and a dictionary as well as a notebook. At the top of the notebook was the title of a Bible study: "Authority, the Inheritance of all Christians." The first entry in the notebook was a definition from a Bible dictionary for "glory."

 

GLORY= beauty, power, or honor; a quality of God’s character that emphasizes His greatness and authority.

 

Then there were notes from the book of Ezekiel showing that the manifestations of God’s glory was like an amber brightness. The last note showed that "logos" is a Greek word used for Christ as the living Word of God. Mrs. Christian slowly began to understand that the "log" home with it’s "amber brightness" was symbolic of the glory and authority of Christ, the LOGos! Another note quotes Jesus from John 17:22 in which He delegates His glory and authority to Christians. Jesus told the Father, "…the glory that you gave Me, I have given them." There were some eye opening verses in which we read that Christians are "seated with Christ in the heavenlies," are "heirs of promise" and "joint heirs with Christ." They have access to "all the riches in glory by Christ Jesus."

 

By this time great floods of tears poured out of every eye as the full impact of all of these things began to sink in. Christians that "shack up with the world" are lukewarm, not understanding even the milk of the Word. They leave Christ behind as the sorrowing Bachelor who waits for His bride to take her rightful place at His side. The glory of the Lord has long since departed from the Bride of Christ; the inheritance lies idle and unclaimed.

 

We all got down on our knees before God and we confessed our sins and repented of not claiming our sacred birthright. Mr. Christian led us in prayer. "Father, we have acted like orphans who have lived defeated lives in spiritual poverty, destitute of understanding. We were blinded by the deep darkness of the devil’s lies. Forgive us for ignoring the precious gift that you provided for us through Christ. You have told us in 1 Cor. 3:21-23 that all things are ours: the world, life, death, things present, things to come. We know now that we are the landlords, we have all this authority and we are leaving the shack behind and moving into glory today! Thank you, Father! Hallelujah! In the Name of Jesus, Amen."

 

Meet the landlords, everybody! I present to you, Victor and Victoria who are Christians who know who they are in Christ! They are radiant with joy, power, and praise just like the photos on the wall. They are going to learn how to stand against the wiles of the devil. There is more to this story.

 

We remembered that "fence" for growing "morning glories" which was by the mobile home. This also must have meaning, so we looked up "fence" which means "to fence as in the art of fencing." We then found that fencing is defined as "skillful swordplay, both offensive and defensive." This time it was Victor who understood the symbolism. "Why, it’s perfectly plain to me that we need to grow in the glory of our newly claimed authority by using the Sword of the spirit as an effective offensive and defensive weapon!," he shouted with elation.

 

Thus, we sat down to do more bible study. The Sword of the Spirit is the Word of God. Eph. 6:17 So we got the concordance and did a study on "word." We found out that there are two main Greek words that are translated into English as "word." Logos and rhema. Rhema was used in this verse, so we had to find out why. We saw that logos was more common and that rhema was only used about 30 times. As we looked up all the verse we found that a rhema word is a word of God that we can speak aloud in faith which then becomes a powerful weapon! With this Sword we can combat fear, worry, guilt, depression, shame, rejection, loneliness, and anything else common to man. We can defeat the devils lies as Jesus did when he quoted Deut. 8:3 out loud so the devil could hear it. This account is in Matthew 4:4 and the word "rhema" was used here for "word." Jesus used a rhema word!

 

Jesus wants us to do likewise. To be victorious, more than conquerors through Him who loves us, we need to pray the Word. We must activate the Sword of the Spirit with praise and faith as we claim it for our lives. We have put on Christ who is our armor of light, the whole armor of God. The apostles and disciples only had Jesus with them and did great miracles even before Pentecost and the indwelling of the Holy Spirit. We now have Christ in us, the hope of glory, and we have as much authority as they did! Jesus has ALL power in Heaven and on Earth and He told us that ANYONE who believes in Him could do the works that He did and even greater works. This is from John 14:12 and is a great authority verse.

 

I asked God to give me a verse that the devil hates and He quickened to me Philippians 4:13, "I can do ALL things through Christ which strengthens me!" Let’s grow in glory, power, and authority because we understand how to "fence" with the devil and his works. We can "grow morning glories on the fence" because we no longer live in the dark!

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Verses used in the article:

John 17:20 Neither pray I for these alone, but for them also which shall believe on me through their word; 21 That they all may be one; as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also may be one in us: that the world may believe that thou hast sent me. 22 And the glory which thou gavest me I have given them; that they may be one, even as we are one:

 

1 Cor. 3:21 Therefore let no man glory in men. For all things are yours; 22 Whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas, or the world, or life, or death, or things present, or things to come; all are yours; 23 And ye are Christ's; and Christ is God's.

 

Deut. 8:3 And he humbled thee, and suffered thee to hunger, and fed thee with manna, which thou knewest not, neither did thy fathers know; that he might make thee know that man doth not live by bread only, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of the LORD doth man live.

 

Matthew 1 Then was Jesus led up of the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted of the devil. 2 And when he had fasted forty days and forty nights, he was afterward an hungred. 3 And when the tempter came to him, he said, If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made bread. 4 But he answered and said, It is written, Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word [rhema] that proceedeth out of the mouth of God.

 

John 14:12 Verily, verily, I say unto you, He that believeth on me, the works that I do shall he do also; and greater works than these shall he do; because I go unto my Father.

     

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama,[note 3] Shakyamuni,[note 4] or simply the Buddha, was a sage[3] on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[web 2] He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in eastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.[4][note 5]

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age.[note 6] Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement[5] common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.[4][6]

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era in India during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatshatru who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain teacher.[7] Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential sramana schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jain, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahāvīra, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by.[8][9][note 7] There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques.[10] While the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true,[11] most scholars do not consistently accept all of the details contained in traditional biographies.[12][13]

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE.[1][14] More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.[1][15][note 5] These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.[20][21][note 9]

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[23] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.[23] According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in Kapilavastu, which may either be in present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 1] He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagara.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One edict of Emperor Ashoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edict mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Mauryan era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon.[34][note 11] The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gāndhārī language on twenty-seven birch bark scrolls, and they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.[web 10]The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.[35] Of these, the Buddhacarita[36][37][38] is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE.[35] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.[39] The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.[39] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra,[40] and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the Nidānakathā is from the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoṣa.[41]

 

From canonical sources, the Jātakas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts.[42] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".[43][44][45] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:[46]

 

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.

 

The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[47] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[48] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[11]The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, present-day Nepal, to be the birthplace of the Buddha.[49][note 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note 1] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India,[32] or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal.[50] Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.[50]

 

Siddharta Gautama was born as a Kshatriya,[51][note 13] the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan",[4] whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,[53][54] and ten months later[55] Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[56] Buddha's birth anniversary holiday is called "Buddha Purnima" in Nepal and India as Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.[57] By traditional account,[which?] this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[57] Kaundinya (Pali: Kondañña), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[58]

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.[59] The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[60] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.[61]Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[62] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.[62]According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 11] after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 11]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.[web 11] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 12] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 12]

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[70] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[70][web 13] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths",[web 13] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[web 13] or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan — who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.

 

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.Dhyana and insight[edit]

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight.[82][95][84] Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[85][81][82]

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama,[note 3] Shakyamuni,[note 4] or simply the Buddha, was a sage[3] on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[web 2] He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in eastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.[4][note 5]

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age.[note 6] Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement[5] common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.[4][6]

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era in India during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatshatru who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain teacher.[7] Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential sramana schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jain, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahāvīra, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by.[8][9][note 7] There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques.[10] While the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true,[11] most scholars do not consistently accept all of the details contained in traditional biographies.[12][13]

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE.[1][14] More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.[1][15][note 5] These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.[20][21][note 9]

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[23] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.[23] According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in Kapilavastu, which may either be in present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 1] He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagara.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One edict of Emperor Ashoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edict mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Mauryan era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon.[34][note 11] The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gāndhārī language on twenty-seven birch bark scrolls, and they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.[web 10]The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.[35] Of these, the Buddhacarita[36][37][38] is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE.[35] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.[39] The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.[39] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra,[40] and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the Nidānakathā is from the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoṣa.[41]

 

From canonical sources, the Jātakas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts.[42] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".[43][44][45] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:[46]

 

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.

 

The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[47] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[48] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[11]The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, present-day Nepal, to be the birthplace of the Buddha.[49][note 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note 1] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India,[32] or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal.[50] Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.[50]

 

Siddharta Gautama was born as a Kshatriya,[51][note 13] the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan",[4] whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,[53][54] and ten months later[55] Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[56] Buddha's birth anniversary holiday is called "Buddha Purnima" in Nepal and India as Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.[57] By traditional account,[which?] this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[57] Kaundinya (Pali: Kondañña), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[58]

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.[59] The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[60] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.[61]Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[62] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.[62]According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 11] after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 11]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.[web 11] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 12] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 12]

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[70] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[70][web 13] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths",[web 13] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[web 13] or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan — who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.

 

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.Dhyana and insight[edit]

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight.[82][95][84] Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[85][81][82]

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama,[note 3] Shakyamuni,[note 4] or simply the Buddha, was a sage[3] on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[web 2] He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in eastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.[4][note 5]

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age.[note 6] Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement[5] common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.[4][6]

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era in India during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatshatru who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain teacher.[7] Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential sramana schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jain, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahāvīra, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by.[8][9][note 7] There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques.[10] While the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true,[11] most scholars do not consistently accept all of the details contained in traditional biographies.[12][13]

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE.[1][14] More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.[1][15][note 5] These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.[20][21][note 9]

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[23] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.[23] According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in Kapilavastu, which may either be in present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 1] He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagara.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One edict of Emperor Ashoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edict mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Mauryan era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon.[34][note 11] The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gāndhārī language on twenty-seven birch bark scrolls, and they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.[web 10]The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.[35] Of these, the Buddhacarita[36][37][38] is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE.[35] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.[39] The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.[39] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra,[40] and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the Nidānakathā is from the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoṣa.[41]

 

From canonical sources, the Jātakas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts.[42] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".[43][44][45] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:[46]

 

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.

 

The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[47] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[48] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[11]The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, present-day Nepal, to be the birthplace of the Buddha.[49][note 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note 1] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India,[32] or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal.[50] Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.[50]

 

Siddharta Gautama was born as a Kshatriya,[51][note 13] the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan",[4] whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,[53][54] and ten months later[55] Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[56] Buddha's birth anniversary holiday is called "Buddha Purnima" in Nepal and India as Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.[57] By traditional account,[which?] this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[57] Kaundinya (Pali: Kondañña), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[58]

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.[59] The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[60] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.[61]Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[62] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.[62]According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 11] after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 11]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.[web 11] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 12] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 12]

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[70] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[70][web 13] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths",[web 13] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[web 13] or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan — who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.

 

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.Dhyana and insight[edit]

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight.[82][95][84] Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[85][81][82]

Q: Why Did Bloor Lansdowne Christian Fellowship Start A Community Dinner Instead Of Sandwich Run Or A Food Bank?

A: Most of us have heard the Chinese Proverb: ‘Give a man a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish and you feed him for a lifetime.’ Sandwich runs and to a lesser degree Food Banks offer scant opportunity to fellowship with or establish a meaningful dialogue with the homeless and marginalized. Both can make it awkward and embarrassing to those on the receiving end of a sandwich or food from a relative stranger. This can be a great stumbling block to sharing the Gospel of Jesus Christ as the ‘volunteer’ may appear condescending or patronizing to a homeless or marginalized person. This makes it extremely difficult to share how faith in Jesus’ sacrifice allows all to be equal in the eyes of God, especially if they find out that volunteers are paying a fee to give a sandwich to them! In a Community Dinner the homeless and marginalized are treated with dignity and respect, served a warm meal with music and fellowship. These conditions are perfect for meaningful dialogue and to establish friendships as a launching point to witness as equals at the same dinner table. At BLCF Cafe, a short testimony and shared scripture are given as the dinner’s second course, served between the main and dessert. Over time our guests develop an appetite and appreciation for spiritual sustenance as much as the food served at the dinner. Through the power of the Holy Spirit many of our guests now help to serve others at the dinner, giving of themselves, showing that they have learned to become fishermen/women and embracing the Mission Statement BLCF Cafe Community Dinner: ‘Truly, I say to you, as you did it to one of the least of these my brothers, you did it to me.’ – Matthew 25:40. A number of our guests have made a decision to accept Jesus as Lord and Saviour, which demonstrates how marvelous and great the work of the Lord is when we trust him to transform a simple function as serving and sharing a community dinner into a meeting of faith and worshiping of our Lord. Many returning guests feel that the community is their church meeting. Jesus knew what He was doing when he fed the multitude when He shared His message on the mount!

BLCF Café

Established in January 2008 and operated under the auspices of BLCF Church, BLCF Café feeds 100+ homeless and marginalized people every Wednesday evening. BLCF Café has the following mandate: Provide all guests with a nourishing meal; to treat our guests with dignity & respect; augment meals with music & fellowship; establish significant relationships; and share the Gospel of Jesus Christ.

HOW YOU CAN HELP THE CAUSE OF THE BLCF CAFÉ? A $150 donation will enable the BLCF Café to feed 100 guests. Donations of non-perishable bulk food items to will help make meals. Volunteers for the BLCF Café are welcome. Tax receipts are available upon request.

BLCF Café Contact Info: Bloor Lansdowne Christian Fellowship 1307 Bloor Street West, Toronto, ON, Phone | 416-535-9578 Email | blcfchurch@yahoo.ca BLOG | blcfchurch.blog.ca Facebook | BLCF Cafe Facebook | BLCF Church

  

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On president Obama's "A New Beginning"

June 4th 2009

Cairo, Egypt

~Quotes

 

I am proud to carry with me the goodwill of the American people,

and a greeting of peace from Muslim communities in my country:

"Assalaamu Alaykum."

- President Barack H. Obama

 

-The relationship between Islam and the West includes centuries of co-existence and cooperation, but also conflict and religious wars.

 

-Violent extremists have exploited these tensions in a small but potent minority of Muslims.

 

-The attacks of September 11th, 2001 and the continued efforts of these extremists to engage in violence against civilians has led some in my country to view Islam as inevitably hostile not only to America and Western countries, but also to human rights. This has bred more fear and mistrust.

 

-So long as our relationship is defined by our differences, we will empower those who sow hatred rather than peace, and who promote conflict rather than the cooperation that can help all of our people achieve justice and prosperity. This cycle of suspicion and discord must end.

 

-I have come here to seek a new beginning between the United States and Muslims around the world; one based upon mutual interest and mutual respect; and one based upon the truth that America and Islam are not exclusive, and need not be in competition. Instead, they overlap, and share common principles - principles of justice and progress; tolerance and the dignity of all human beings.

 

-As the Holy Koran tells us, "Be conscious of God and speak always the truth." That is what I will try to do.

 

-As a boy, I spent several years in Indonesia and heard the call of the Azaan at the break of dawn and the fall of dusk.<3

 

-It was Islam - that carried the light of learning through so many centuries, paving the way for Europe's Renaissance and Enlightenment. It was innovation in Muslim communities that developed the order of algebra; our magnetic compass and tools of navigation; our mastery of pens and printing; our understanding of how disease spreads and how it can be healed. Islamic culture has given us majestic arches and soaring spires; timeless poetry and cherished music; elegant calligraphy and places of peaceful contemplation. And throughout history, Islam has demonstrated through words and deeds the possibilities of religious tolerance and racial equality.

 

-I know, too, that Islam has always been a part of America's story.

 

-In signing the Treaty of Tripoli in 1796, our second President John Adams wrote, "The United States has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion or tranquility of Muslims."

 

-And since our founding, American Muslims have enriched the United States. They have fought in our wars, served in government, stood for civil rights, started businesses, taught at our Universities, excelled in our sports arenas, won Nobel Prizes, built our tallest building, and lit the Olympic Torch.

 

-And when the first Muslim-American was recently elected to Congress, he took the oath to defend our Constitution using the same Holy Koran that one of our Founding Fathers - Thomas Jefferson - kept in his personal library.

 

-I consider it part of my responsibility as President of the United States to fight against negative stereotypes of Islam wherever they appear.

 

-Just as Muslims do not fit a crude stereotype, America is not the crude stereotype of a self-interested empire.

 

-We are shaped by every culture, drawn from every end of the Earth, and dedicated to a simple concept: E pluribus unum: "Out of many, one."

 

-The dream of opportunity for all people has not come true for everyone in America, but its promise exists for all who come to our shores - that includes nearly seven million American Muslims in our country today.

 

-Moreover, freedom in America is indivisible from the freedom to practice one's religion. That is why there is a mosque in every state of our union, and over 1,200 mosques within our borders. That is why the U.S. government has gone to court to protect the right of women and girls to wear the hijab, and to punish those who would deny it.

 

-So let there be no doubt: Islam is a part of America. And I believe that America holds within her the truth that regardless of race, religion, or station in life, all of us share common aspirations - to live in peace and security; to get an education and to work with dignity; to love our families, our communities, and our God.

These things we share. This is the hope of all humanity.

 

-Indeed, none of us should tolerate these extremists. They have killed in many countries. They have killed people of different faiths - more than any other, they have killed Muslims. Their actions are irreconcilable with the rights of human beings, the progress of nations, and with Islam.

 

-The Holy Koran teaches that whoever kills an innocent, it is as if he has killed all mankind; and whoever saves a person, it is as if he has saved all mankind. The enduring faith of over a billion people is so much bigger than the narrow hatred of a few. Islam is not part of the problem in combating violent extremism - it is an important part of promoting peace.

 

-Indeed, we can recall the words of Thomas Jefferson, who said: "I hope that our wisdom will grow with our power, and teach us that the less we use our power the greater it will be."

 

-Just as America can never tolerate violence by extremists, we must never alter our principles. 9/11 was an enormous trauma to our country. The fear and anger that it provoked was understandable, but in some cases, it led us to act contrary to our ideals.

 

-Repeating vile stereotypes about Jews - is deeply wrong, and only serves to evoke in the minds of Israelis this most painful of memories while preventing the peace that the people of this region deserve.

 

-It is also undeniable that the Palestinian people - Muslims and Christians - have suffered in pursuit of a homeland. For more than sixty years they have endured the pain of dislocation. Many wait in refugee camps in the West Bank, Gaza, and neighboring lands for a life of peace and security that they have never been able to lead. They endure the daily humiliations - large and small - that come with occupation.

 

-The United States does not accept the legitimacy of continued Israeli settlements. This construction violates previous agreements and undermines efforts to achieve peace. It is time for these settlements to stop.

 

-Israel must also live up to its obligations to ensure that Palestinians can live, and work, and develop their society. And just as it devastates Palestinian families, the continuing humanitarian crisis in Gaza does not serve Israel's security.

 

-Too many tears have flowed. Too much blood has been shed. All of us have a responsibility to work for the day when the mothers of Israelis and Palestinians can see their children grow up without fear; when the Holy Land of three great faiths is the place of peace that God intended it to be; when Jerusalem is a secure and lasting home for Jews and Christians and Muslims, and a place for all of the children of Abraham to mingle peacefully together as in the story of Isra, when Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed (peace be upon them) joined in prayer.<3

 

-I do have an unyielding belief that all people yearn for certain things: the ability to speak your mind and have a say in how you are governed; confidence in the rule of law and the equal administration of justice; government that is transparent and doesn't steal from the people; the freedom to live as you choose. Those are not just American ideas, they are human rights, and that is why we will support them everywhere.

 

-Islam has a proud tradition of tolerance. We see it in the history of Andalusia and Cordoba during the Inquisition. I saw it firsthand as a child in Indonesia, where devout Christians worshiped freely in an overwhelmingly Muslim country. That is the spirit we need today. People in every country should be free to choose and live their faith based upon the persuasion of the mind, heart, and soul.

 

-It is important for Western countries to avoid impeding Muslim citizens from practicing religion as they see fit - for instance, by dictating what clothes a Muslim woman should wear. We cannot disguise hostility towards any religion behind the pretense of liberalism.

 

-There is so much fear, so much mistrust. But if we choose to be bound by the past, we will never move forward. And I want to particularly say this to young people of every faith, in every country - you, more than anyone, have the ability to remake this world.

 

-The Holy Koran tells us, "O mankind! We have created you male and a female; and we have made you into nations and tribes so that you may know one another."

 

-The Talmud tells us: "The whole of the Torah is for the purpose of promoting peace."

 

-The Holy Bible tells us, "Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sons of God."

 

-The people of the world can live together in peace. We know that is God's vision. Now, that must be our work here on Earth. Thank you. And may God's peace be upon you.

 

Another one done

 

I thought this was an appropriate image for 10 years and a day after 9-11

10 years ago I was in Command and going to the psych ward to see one of my soldiers

he was an Arabic linguist and had heard everything as it was happening

He couldnt deal and tried to kill himself

He never did get right and we had to discharge him

 

I have spent 4 of the last 10 "9-12" deployed

I will spend the next assigned to a command that was created in response to 9-11

 

God tells us to love, not hate

God tells us to give, not kill

There is a difference between belief and religion

between sacred and holy

 

Romans 14:

 

The Weak and the Strong

 

1 Accept the one whose faith is weak, without quarreling over disputable matters. One person’s faith allows them to eat anything, but another, whose faith is weak, eats only vegetables. The one who eats everything must not treat with contempt the one who does not, and the one who does not eat everything must not judge the one who does, for God has accepted them. Who are you to judge someone else’s servant? To their own master, servants stand or fall. And they will stand, for the Lord is able to make them stand.

 

One person considers one day more sacred than another; another considers every day alike. Each of them should be fully convinced in their own mind. Whoever regards one day as special does so to the Lord. Whoever eats meat does so to the Lord, for they give thanks to God; and whoever abstains does so to the Lord and gives thanks to God. For none of us lives for ourselves alone, and none of us dies for ourselves alone. If we live, we live for the Lord; and if we die, we die for the Lord. So, whether we live or die, we belong to the Lord. For this very reason, Christ died and returned to life so that he might be the Lord of both the dead and the living.

 

You, then, why do you judge your brother or sister? Or why do you treat them with contempt? For we will all stand before God’s judgment seat. It is written:

 

“‘As surely as I live,’ says the Lord,

‘every knee will bow before me;

every tongue will acknowledge God.’

 

So then, each of us will give an account of ourselves to God.

 

Therefore let us stop passing judgment on one another. Instead, make up your mind not to put any stumbling block or obstacle in the way of a brother or sister. I am convinced, being fully persuaded in the Lord Jesus, that nothing is unclean in itself. But if anyone regards something as unclean, then for that person it is unclean. If your brother or sister is distressed because of what you eat, you are no longer acting in love. Do not by your eating destroy someone for whom Christ died. Therefore do not let what you know is good be spoken of as evil. For the kingdom of God is not a matter of eating and drinking, but of righteousness, peace and joy in the Holy Spirit, because anyone who serves Christ in this way is pleasing to God and receives human approval.

 

Let us therefore make every effort to do what leads to peace and to mutual edification. Do not destroy the work of God for the sake of food. All food is clean, but it is wrong for a person to eat anything that causes someone else to stumble. It is better not to eat meat or drink wine or to do anything else that will cause your brother or sister to fall.

 

So whatever you believe about these things keep between yourself and God. Blessed is the one who does not condemn himself by what he approves. But whoever has doubts is condemned if they eat, because their eating is not from faith; and everything that does not come from faith is sin.

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COME VISIT MALL GREAT RIDGE HAVEN REFUGE BIRD ♈♉♊♋♌♍♎♏♐♑♒⛎ #RECORDS #TAYLORSWIFT #THERHYTHMSECTION #SHIRTS #VINYLRECORDS WWW.MUSIC1978.COM WWW.FLICKR.COM/PHOTOS/MUSIC1978 WWW.RHYTHMSECTIONGATLINBURG.COM TAYLORSWIFT ADVENTURETIME STURGILLSIMPSON JIMIHENDRIX BARBIE ELTONJOHN NIRVANA TOMPETTY OLIVIARODRIGO JEFFBUCKLEY LANADELREY MICHAELJACKSON MFDOOM THECURE GORILLAZ TEARSFORFEARS RAGEAGAINSTTHEMACHINE M83 NIGHTMAREBEFORECHRISTMAS BOBDYLAN NEONGENESISEVANGELION KINGCRIMSON BACKTOTHEFUTURE NEUTRALMILKHOTEL ARCTICMONKEYS TYLERTHECREATOR MGMT OZZYOSBOURNE MYBLOODYVALENTINE DAVIDBOWIE COCTEAUTWINS TAMEIMPALA JOHNNYCASH BEETLEJUICE MACDEMARCO MACMILLER MELANIEMARTINEZ STRANGERTHINGS DIO TYLERCHILDERS DIRTYDANCING FOOTLOOSE THEDOORS 💜☮️♈♉♊♋♌♍♎♏♐♑♒⛎⛎♾️🔴🔵I GOT / BLIND FAR FROM ME DAY-IN DAY-OUT BLOWIN IN WIND MY GIRLS #REALMS #LAYERS #LEVELS #MAGICMIRROR #HEALINGMAGIC #MAZE #WAY #MAGICAL #FEAR #BETH #PATTERN #MEDICINAL #DAN #YIN #YANG #DUALITY #COSMICDREAM #MAGICRAINBOW #FORESTMAGIC #WORLDOFDREAM 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All Saints, Gazeley, Suffolk.

 

There was never any doubt I would go to Rob's funeral. Rob was born just two weeks before me, and in our many meetings, we found we had so much in common.

 

A drive to Ipswich should be something like only two and a half hours, but with the Dartford Crossing that could balloon to four or more.

 

My choice was to leave early, soon after Jools left for work, or wait to near nine once rush hour was over. If I was up early, I'd leave early, I said.

 

Which is what happened.

 

So, after coffee and Jools leaving, I loaded my camera stuff in the car, not bothering to program in a destination, as I knew the route to Suffolk so well.

 

Checking the internet I found the M2 was closed, so that meant taking the M20, which I like as it runs beside HS2, although over the years, vegetation growth now hides most of it, and with Eurostar cutting services due to Brexit, you're lucky to see a train on the line now.

 

I had a phone loaded with podcasts, so time flew by, even if travelling through the endless roadworks at 50mph seemed to take forever.

 

Dartford was jammed. But we inched forward, until as the bridge came in sight, traffic moved smoothly, and I followed the traffic down into the east bore of the tunnel.

 

Another glorious morning for travel, the sun shone from a clear blue sky, even if traffic was heavy, but I had time, so not pressing on like I usually do, making the drive a pleasant one.

 

Up through Essex, where most other traffic turned off at Stanstead, then up to the A11 junction, with it being not yet nine, I had several hours to fill before the ceremony.

 

I stopped at Cambridge services for breakfast, then programmed the first church in: Gazeley, which is just in Suffolk on the border with Cambridgeshire.

 

I took the next junction off, took two further turnings brought be to the village, which is divided by one of the widest village streets I have ever seen.

 

It was five past nine: would the church be open?

 

I parked on the opposite side of the road, grabbed my bag and camera, limped over, passing a warden putting new notices in the parish notice board. We exchange good mornings, and I walk to the porch.

 

The inner door was unlocked, and the heavy door swung after turning the metal ring handle.

 

I had made a list of four churches from Simon's list of the top 60 Suffolk churches, picking those on or near my route to Ipswich and which piqued my interest.

 

Here, it was the reset mediaeval glass.

 

Needless to say, I had the church to myself, the centuries hanging heavy inside as sunlight flooded in filling the Chancel with warm golden light.

 

Windows had several devotional dials carved in the surrounding stone, and a huge and "stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast" which caught my eye.

 

A display in the Chancel was of the decoration of the wooden roof above where panels contained carved beats, some actual and some mythical.

 

I photographed them all.

 

----------------------------------------------------

 

All Saints is a large, remarkably good church in one of the sleepy, fat villages along the Cambridgeshire border, the sort of place you cycle through and imagine wistfully that you've won the lottery and could move there. The wide churchyard on both sides is a perfect setting for the church, which rises to heaven out of a perpendicular splendour of aisles, clerestories and battlements. The tower was complete by the 1470s when money was being left for a bell. The earlier chancel steadies the ship, anchoring it to earth quietly, although the tall east window has its spectacular moment too. And you step into a deliciously well-kept interior, full of interest.

One of the most significant medieval survivals here is not easily noticed. This is the range of 15th Century glass, which was reset by the Victorians high in the clerestory. This seems a curious thing to have done, since it defeats the purpose of a clerestory, but if they had not done so then we might have lost it. The glass matches the tracery in the north aisle windows, so that is probably where they came from. There are angels, three Saints and some shields, most of which are heraldic but two show the instruments of the passion and the Holy Trinity. I would not be surprised to learn that some of the shields are 19th century, but the figures are all original late 15th or early 16th century. The Saints are an unidentified Bishop, the hacksaw-wielding St Faith and one of my favourites, St Apollonia. She it was who was invoked by medieval people against toothache.

 

Waling from the nave up into the chancel, the space created by the clearing of clutter makes it at once mysterious and beautiful. Above, the early 16th century waggon roof is Suffolk's best of its kind. Mortlock points out the little angels bearing scrolls, the wheat ears and the vine sprays, and the surviving traces of colour. The low side window on the south side still has its hinges, for here it was that updraught to the rood would have sent the candles flickering in the mystical church of the 14th century. On the south side of the sanctuary is an exquisitely carved arched recess, that doesn't appear to have ever had a door, and may have been a very rare purpose-built Easter sepulchre at the time of the 1330s rebuilding. Opposite is a huge and stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast. It is one of the most significant Decorated moments in Suffolk.

 

On the floor of the chancel there is a tiny, perfect chalice brass, one of only two surviving in Suffolk. The other is at Rendham. Not far away is the indent of another chalice brass - or perhaps it was for the same one, and the brass has been moved for some reason. There are two chalice indents at Westhall, but nowhere else in Suffolk. Chalice brasses were popular memorials for Priests in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and thus were fair game for reformers. Heigham memorials of the late 16th century are on the walls. Back in the south aisle there is a splendid tombchest in Purbeck marble. It has lost its brasses, but the indents show us where they were, as do other indents in the aisle floors. Some heraldic brass shields survive, and show that Heighams were buried here. Brass inscriptions survive in the nave and the chancel, dating from the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

 

The 14th century font is a good example of the tracery pattern series that appeared in the decades before the Black Death. They may have been intended to spread ideas at that time of great artistic and intellectual flowering before it was so cruelly snatched away. The cover is 17th Century. At this end of the nave are two good ranges of medieval benches, one, rare in East Anglia, is a group of 14th Century benches with pierced tracery backs. Some of them appear to spell out words, and Mortlock thought one might say Salaman Sayet. The block of benches to the north appears to be 15th Century or possibly early 16th Century. Further north, the early 17th Century benches are simpler, even cruder, and were likely the work of the village carpenter.

 

All rather lovely then. And yet, it hasn't always been that way. All Saints at Gazeley, near Newmarket, was the first church that I visited after an international team of scientists conclusively proved that God did not exist began the first page for this church that I wrote in 2003, in a satirical mood after finding the church locked and at a very low ebb. At a time when congregations were generally falling, I'd been thinking about the future of medieval churches beyond a time when they would have people to use them in the traditional way. I wondered if the buildings might find new uses, or could adapt themselves to changing patterns and emphases in Christianity, or even changing spiritual needs of their parishes. Even if science could somehow prove that God did not exist, I suggested, there were parishes which would rise to the challenge and reinvent themselves, as churches have always done over the two millennia of Christianity. Coming to Gazeley I felt that here was a church which felt as if it had been abandoned. And yet, it seemed to me a church of such significance, such historical and spiritual importance, that its loss would be a disaster. If it had been clean, tidy and open at the time he was visiting, Simon Jenkins England's Thousand Best Churches would not have been able to resist it. Should the survival of such a treasure store depend upon the existence of God or the continued practice of the Christian faith? Or might there be other reasons to keep this extraordinary building in something like its present integrity?

 

In the first decade of the 21st Century, Gazeley church went on a tremendous journey, from being moribund to being the wonderful church you can visit today. If you want to read the slightly adapted 2006 entry for Gazeley, recounting this journey, you can do so here. Coming back here today always fills me with optimism for what can be achieved. On one occasion I mentioned my experiences of Gazeley church to a Catholic Priest friend of mine, and he said he hoped I knew I'd seen the power of the Holy Spirit at work. And perhaps that is so. Certainly, the energy and imagination of the people here have been fired by something. On that occasion I had wanted to find someone to ask about it, to find out how things stood now. But there was no one, and so the building spoke for them.

 

Back outside in the graveyard, the dog daisies clustered and waved their sun-kissed faces in the light breeze. The ancient building must have known many late-May days like this over the centuries, but think of all the changes that it has known inside! The general buffeting of the winds of history still leaves room for local squalls and lightning strikes. All Saints has known these, but for now a blessed calm reigns here. Long may it remain so.

 

Simon Knott, June 2019

 

www.suffolkchurches.co.uk/gazeley.htm

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VOICE OF PROPHECY - Prophetic Words

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Ray Ashmore

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Posted: 03/14/2007 at 10:52am | IP Logged Quote Ray Ashmore

 

There is coming, and now is in seed form, a new order five-fold ministry which, for the most part, is hidden today, but is being revealed in these last days as a restoration of New Testament government and order. The scriptures given as promises to the coming apostles are Isaiah 60 and Isaiah 49. Apostolic authority is not sought by the called ones. On the contrary, it is reluctantly accepted. But obedient hearts submit to the Father’s will. They do not seek recognition but will be recognized as they go about their tasks of obedience. These apostles are committed as never before to the nameless, faceless ministry of lifting up the name of Jesus.

 

No one knows in specifics what this new order will look like. The fulfillment will interpret the prophecies. But there are coming significant changes in the body of Christ. There will be a change in the present leadership pattern of our churches. The present five-fold is still very much an overlay on the old order pattern of pastor, church officials and congregation. Some have changed the name "pastor" and replaced it with "apostle," or expanded team ministries to identify and include those with five-fold giftings. But the pattern is the same. This way of five-fold is necessary for transitional purposes, but will give way to a new work of God.

 

Many of the well known apostles and prophets today are members of the old order and speak out of the old paradigm. This does not make them wrong, just marginally relevant for what God is bringing about in the future.

 

New order apostles will not reject established church fellowships, but will be focused primarily as Jesus was, with an unyielding emphasis of reaching out, rather than inviting in. The gathered people of God will be community-wide, as city churches become more than wishful thinking. This will change the way the church is understood by the man in the street. Church is seen primarily as a gathering of like-minded Christians on Elm and Main which may or may not be denominationally related. The city-wide, nation-wide, world-wide nature of the church has been acknowledged in a token way or a denominational way, but the great reality which Jesus prayed for in John 17 hasn't manifested since a partial manifestation in the church's infancy. There is a coming change in our paradigm. Christians will begin to see the church as a community rather than a location. Locations will be important, but only as places to facilitate God's work, not as identity makers.

 

Miracles are increasing and will continue to increase as the name of Jesus is lifted up and His kingdom is manifested. The increase will be to the degree that the "wow" miracles we see today will be "ho-hum" in the days ahead. Apostolic miracles in every community and around the world will draw people to meet together in their common areas, church buildings, businesses, community buildings and homes. Religious walls of denominationalism and theological nit-picking will fall (at least among the obedient). Racial suspicions and divisions will begin to disappear as walls of the flesh crumble.

 

Those who are entrenched and vested in the present day old church order, (pastors who are in it for their careers, provincially minded church leaders, class and race worshippers), will align themselves with the world and will seek to stop the new movement of God through slanders and deceptions of all sorts., but to no avail. This civil war should reach its height within ten years of the public unveiling of the new order apostles. It will continue for some years as the forces of darkness, citizens of the world and religious conservators join together. There will be great darkness and travail, but the lovers of God’s kingdom will prevail. There will also be initial opposition from some five-fold ministers who will feel threatened by the new order. But when their pride is broken, one by one these leaders will join the new wineskin of God.

 

As the Father says, “I am going to work mighty works. I am going to touch my Heart, my Church. I am going to make a way of salvation and lead my Church to glory. I am going to manifest my presence, my power and my purpose for the Church in these last days. There will be great suffering, but greater glory. I will be revealed in power and men will marvel at my sight. Stand up and speak. Do not be deterred. There are those who want to hear their own thoughts, their own interpretations of their lives, and of Me. They do not want to hear me. But I will speak and not be silent. I will proclaim and not be shut up. I will voice my will and there is no one who will frustrate my work. My Truth is coming to pass and I will have my way.”

  

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Mike League

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Posted: 03/14/2007 at 12:20pm | IP Logged Quote Mike League

This certainly sounds great to me. The old, traditional way has never worked for me, that's for sure. I'm interested in reaching out to the lost. That's my goal. This new paradigm seems that it would be a better way to do that.

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Kathy Bippus

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Posted: 03/14/2007 at 6:00pm | IP Logged Quote Kathy Bippus

 

amen,

 

The `church' (ISC )has placed the emphasis on the gifts(five-fold), not Holy Spirit. He's now cleansing mindsets that have been taught and passed down, of and by men. He's tearing down those structures that have been built and propagated, and the government of His Kingdom is being established within the hearts and souls of men. We are built and founded upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ being the chief corner. The foundation which is built upon is, Jesus Christ. He is Messiah, Lord, King, Yvwh and His Kingdom of which the prophets foretold and the apostles preached. It is this Rock the church is built upon and the gates of hell can not prevail against. The Rock is the King and His Kingdom. Preach the gospel of the Kingdom in demonstration of power..in demonstration of His High Order of Government that triumphs over all. Too this we are called, to this we are to be His witnesses, in all the world.

    

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Denise Detwiler

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Posted: 03/16/2007 at 5:17pm | IP Logged Quote Denise Detwiler

 

theres some good info in this..and hmmm...not exactly where to go here. could go many directions....

 

ok - one is that God has been repeatedly turning my thoughts to the letters to Corinth in recent months. and pointing out that although they all came together into what had to have been some pretty large meetings, they were not one. there were various factions and groupings and even classes of people and nationalities who - although they were gathered - were not joined. and He is showing me how much of what we do in large gatherings is very like that. and even just the concepts of having 'certain' apostles or teachers we 'follow'. and not only this, historically many (not all) of the leaders encouraged this type of thinking. (unlike Paul who comes against it)

 

What you write of: it's not been seen so we really don't know completely what to expect.

 

In Corinth, 'these' didn't sit with 'those' and 'that group's' widows didn't get to participate in the distribution of food, if a 'certain person' had baptized you..that set you in line ahead of others....

 

And while we have tried with our best efforts, for a large part we have not yet (as a whole) absorbed enough of His heart and nature to step away from this and into better things. In fact it has been much worse at certain times of history than now...and in many groups it's been the visible leaders who have fanned the flames of this....from impure hearts.

 

now what I seem to see from my end...is that now there are very unlikely appearing (on the surface) emergences of what you are calling the new order. hidden beneath what seems to be the opposite...and about to be uncovered and revealed. you say as they become visible there is to be civil war and although this doesn't surprise me...my hope is that it can be mitigated as much as possible by the bearing and attitude of the new order as you call it (really been around a good long time however not able to be widespread and full fledged) and by the Lord Himself revealing Himself in and amongst them.

 

My hope for mitigation of the civil war is the desire to see far more than seems possible make this shift. And less tragedies and loss of life.

 

Am hoping for a great deal more happy joyous surprises than grievous and sad ones...although I know there will be both....

    

Edited by Denise Detwiler on 03/16/2007 at 5:19pm

 

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Therese Manes

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Posted: 03/16/2007 at 6:35pm | IP Logged Quote Therese Manes

 

Whew...

 

I hope I don't offend anyone, but I'm so thankful God has kept me out of the churches, the "religious world", and mostly away from media. (TV, newspapers, radio)

 

I'm new to this wonderful website; and while I've never felt more "connected" to people in my life due to having received many of your same revelations--I honestly don't comprehend half of the terms that are being used on here. (i.e. five-fold ministry)

 

But that's okay --haha! I'm hanging in there, and being very blessed by all of this.

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susanvercelli

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Posted: 03/16/2007 at 6:49pm | IP Logged Quote susanvercelli

 

Hi Ray, the Lord gave me a word awhile back for leadership and order and I just thought it tied in with what you have shared her so I felt led by God to add this, thank you for sharing with us!

   

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Posted: 05/26/2006 at 1:40pm | IP Logged Quote susanvercelli

 

We learn from pst mistakes,Leadership must walk humble, and fear GOD, they have a moment by moment leading of the HolySPIRIT, They never underestimate who GOD can use, and they are always open for change and newness. They stay teachable, even when GOD gives great success and fame, they will not trust in approval or praises of man, they only seek GODS approval,PEACE... the mind of Christ, theres no spiritual pride, they come to JESUS daily like the blind man, say, I cant see show me, they come like a child like I know nothing, even what I think I know I lay down, come empty to be filled, they recieve the mind of CHRIST. His word comes first always, He meets us in his word, Theres no competition for position, or place, either ya know it or ya dont and ya get removed, if ya not sure your place ya get honest and ya will be shown. Leaders always open for correction, not proud, if it dont apply they let it fly, but if it does and their not accepting it their will be no peace till they surrender and get honest, and you will be continually confronted till you surrender, leaders will line up with GOD priorty"S not their own agenda, The fatherless the widow, the poor, even if GOD blesses you abundantly, with riches, spiritually and in natural, there will always be a ministry of giving to the poor, the true leaders know the more they give the more GOD blesses, they are faithfull stewards, and can be trusted with great wealth, used for GODS purpose, no greed or selfishness, for they know how can they enjoy the wealth if they arent sharing with the poor, this is the heart of the leadership, 1

 

Even those with great annointing position place in the kingdom, know they dont have to push to be heard or noticed, they only move with the spirit of GOD! they sit back and dont worry at times, they know noone can take their place in the Kingdom, their not threatened or insecure they know who they are, they are confident and bold and know that what GOD has for them to do, is only for them, its unique and cant be duplicated by flesh, some will try to copy, but it will be void of power and authority. leaders know all who are out of order will be drained and dealt with by GOD. they will have no peace and oppression and no good fruit if they are out of place. leaders know lip service is not enough, or even to understand intellectually, it must come from heart must be tested and tried and made life experience before you have power to preach it, those who try to preach from mind not heart are shallow and void of power, relegious flesh, they only understand on soul level(mind will intellect) but it never went deeper. Leaders dont preach like its for everyone else and not them, their never to proud to look at themselves, Real servants dont mind not being in the limelight, as a matter of fact they prefer not to, but when they are they always point to JESUS, and give him the GLORY< they refuse credit, give glory to GOD. They dont have to defend , but they will only at times defend truth, in order to to help someone see, so they can be set free.

  

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Edited by Kathy Bippus on 03/16/2007 at 8:15pm

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Therese Manes

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Posted: 03/16/2007 at 6:59pm | IP Logged Quote Therese Manes

 

Susan! You and these folks are just SO annointed with the TRUTH!!! (Oh, how I wish there were people like you in MY "neck of the woods" to fellowship with in person!) Haha!

  

Edited by Therese Manes on 03/16/2007 at 7:00pm

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susanvercelli

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Posted: 03/16/2007 at 7:29pm | IP Logged Quote susanvercelli

Hi Therese, well there is! There"s you! You are a light sweetheart! You just shine for Jesus! and one thing God always spoke to me (which I didnt quite understand) was He would say, there"s no distance! meaning that I can be here and you can be there but there"s no distance when we are with God, He is here and there and everywhere! (meaning we are together even though we are long distance?) God is with us! and we are together! I Am with you, and you are with me! (thats the revy I got) Isn"t this Glorious! Amen and be Blessed by the Lord, follow and abide always! send ya love from New Jersey to wherever ya at!

 

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Denise Detwiler

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Posted: 03/16/2007 at 8:03pm | IP Logged Quote Denise Detwiler

 

Hi Teresa! Interestingly enough -- a part of what spurred my thought in this direction: "now what I seem to see from my end...is that now there are very unlikely appearing (on the surface) emergences of what you are calling the new order. hidden beneath what seems to be the opposite...and about to be uncovered and revealed."

 

was actually the use of 'five fold' and several other similar type words in the body of this message...it got my mind thinking of how certain things may give an appearance of or a sort of hiding of the reality that's within...certain looks and sounds trigger certain assumptions...but it really is far different than what may appear on the surface or at a glance or by the way it 'sounds' to the ear...

 

for the record...I hadn't heard the term 'five fold' until i think the 90's and then found out not too long after that what it meant in a general sense...but that has grown to have huge complicated structures round it for some people...it is also a widely used term that can connect the dots for some people.

 

there are several such terms in the above piece.

    

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Posted: 03/16/2007 at 8:34pm | IP Logged Quote Therese Manes

 

God bless you Susan, for your precious comment. Yes, it IS Glorious... and I'm sending love right back to ya, from Carolina Country.

 

And thank you Denise, for your additional insight. This post still has me in a bit of a tizzy; I'll have to read it over a few more times.Most of it confirms what the Holy Spirit has been showing me, but it's just those few terms that aren't actually used in scripture, that are throwing me back a bit.

 

I'm praying you ALL have a very blessed weekend!

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Kathy Bippus

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Posted: 03/16/2007 at 8:59pm | IP Logged Quote Kathy Bippus

 

Hi all,

 

What I hear and am seeing is the sound of the underground. An emergence of the living organism manifesting from within earth, upon earth.

 

Teresa, some refer to five-fold being apostles, prophets, teachers, evangelists, pastors. While these indeed exist, even as stated in scripture, they are merely gifts of servanthood appointed a certain function within the body of Christ. I hadn't heard the term five-fold either until the early 90's. What that has done, in a very subtle way is produce an esteeming of and an elitism. In the Kingdom of God all are servants, subjects. There is none above, nor beneath another but one. A servant will honor others better than themselves..meaning placing them above themself, in this we see in part the functioning of these gifts appointed by Him. Even as the Son of Man did not come to be served but to serve and the servant is not above His Master.

 

Sometimes when describing something we see of Him, in our limited vocabulary, we put a `term' upon it. What I think Ray is saying here by `new order' is his describing this..An emergence of the living organism manifesting from within and upon earth.

 

There is much that could be shared here and as Denise said, the structures and such. I encourage everyone to read through the Kingdom Growth Guides. As we beging to seek first the Kingdom of God and His righteousness, all these things begin to align. That is what is taking place right now..shifting from the church emphasis, to the King and His Kingdom emphasis.

 

Love and blessings,

  

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Posted: 03/16/2007 at 9:27pm | IP Logged Quote Therese Manes

 

Ahhhh! Makes perfect sense to me now. Haha! Thank you! I guess I've never been one to get into "titles"... for myself, I just find it simpler for me to obey the calling God gives me--going where ever He leads and doing whatever He commands. Not to dishonor anyone who does hold titles; it's just that I'm most familiar with the meaning of those such as apostle, prophet, teacher, evangelist, etc., as mentioned in scripture and also above.

 

Thank you so much for taking the time to explain further Kathy, and I will definitely continue reading through those Kingdom Growth Guides.

 

Abundant blessings to all!

  

Edited by Therese Manes on 03/16/2007 at 9:29pm

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Posted: 03/16/2007 at 10:19pm | IP Logged Quote Kathy Bippus

 

Feel the same way Terese!

 

He never intended for us to erect a building and call that the church. A building, be it house or warehouse(where-house*smiles) can be used by the church..the body of Christ. The body of Christ is the city of refuge, relationally, so how that manifests in practicality varies. It is far huger than what we have made of it, for sure. It actually blows my mind! wooo!

 

I think in some ways what we did is take the scripture that says` a mans gift will make room for him' and turned it backwards and man made a room for his gift.

 

~~~~~breaking the chains~~~~~in His Love~~~~~

  

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Prema Laban

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Posted: 03/17/2007 at 2:06am | IP Logged Quote Prema Laban

 

Isnt God amazing and faithful? For years, we have all in our individual lives felt this tug to something new in Him. I dont know about all of you but it is SO great to know that others are hearing similar truth. For me, we are moving to a season of FUNCTIONAL authority in the church - the true church is here already functioning as God intended us to- with the life of God flowing and healing for the nations who see Jesus lifted up as King, THE WORD who is life.

 

For me positional authority is meaningless if it is not backed up by heaven's government. Daniel records an event when all power is handed over by the court of heaven to the Son and then there is dominion handed over to the saints of the everlasting kingdom. There are those with functional authority who have a heavenly mandate wo have been commissioned and are in place to see God's purpose established wheresoever He wills it -

 

"I come to do Thy will O Lord" is the response of the sons who have been entrusted with this heavenly charge and there is nothing that is going to stop this kingdom for the King is in our midst.

 

God Bless

 

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Posted: 03/17/2007 at 11:46am | IP Logged Quote Ray Ashmore

 

Susan,

 

Right on point with the word you just gave.

 

Thanks and blessings,

 

Ray

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Posted: 03/17/2007 at 12:43pm | IP Logged Quote Kathy Bippus

 

"I come to do Thy will O Lord" is the response of the sons who have been entrusted with this heavenly charge and there is nothing that is going to stop this kingdom for the King is in our midst." underline emphasis mine *K

 

Amen Prema, indeed He is oh so amazing and faithful! Oh such Beauty too behold! who is like unto our God..Who Reigns in wisom, might and splendor?!! He makes known His deeds among the people..Our Father, Who lives and abides in heaven, in the High Places, over and above all, Holy, Separate and Consecrated is Your Name, Your Kingdom, Your Governing come, manifest, appear on earth as it is in heaven!

  

Edited by Kathy Bippus on 03/17/2007 at 12:45pm

 

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All Saints, Gazeley, Suffolk.

 

There was never any doubt I would go to Rob's funeral. Rob was born just two weeks before me, and in our many meetings, we found we had so much in common.

 

A drive to Ipswich should be something like only two and a half hours, but with the Dartford Crossing that could balloon to four or more.

 

My choice was to leave early, soon after Jools left for work, or wait to near nine once rush hour was over. If I was up early, I'd leave early, I said.

 

Which is what happened.

 

So, after coffee and Jools leaving, I loaded my camera stuff in the car, not bothering to program in a destination, as I knew the route to Suffolk so well.

 

Checking the internet I found the M2 was closed, so that meant taking the M20, which I like as it runs beside HS2, although over the years, vegetation growth now hides most of it, and with Eurostar cutting services due to Brexit, you're lucky to see a train on the line now.

 

I had a phone loaded with podcasts, so time flew by, even if travelling through the endless roadworks at 50mph seemed to take forever.

 

Dartford was jammed. But we inched forward, until as the bridge came in sight, traffic moved smoothly, and I followed the traffic down into the east bore of the tunnel.

 

Another glorious morning for travel, the sun shone from a clear blue sky, even if traffic was heavy, but I had time, so not pressing on like I usually do, making the drive a pleasant one.

 

Up through Essex, where most other traffic turned off at Stanstead, then up to the A11 junction, with it being not yet nine, I had several hours to fill before the ceremony.

 

I stopped at Cambridge services for breakfast, then programmed the first church in: Gazeley, which is just in Suffolk on the border with Cambridgeshire.

 

I took the next junction off, took two further turnings brought be to the village, which is divided by one of the widest village streets I have ever seen.

 

It was five past nine: would the church be open?

 

I parked on the opposite side of the road, grabbed my bag and camera, limped over, passing a warden putting new notices in the parish notice board. We exchange good mornings, and I walk to the porch.

 

The inner door was unlocked, and the heavy door swung after turning the metal ring handle.

 

I had made a list of four churches from Simon's list of the top 60 Suffolk churches, picking those on or near my route to Ipswich and which piqued my interest.

 

Here, it was the reset mediaeval glass.

 

Needless to say, I had the church to myself, the centuries hanging heavy inside as sunlight flooded in filling the Chancel with warm golden light.

 

Windows had several devotional dials carved in the surrounding stone, and a huge and "stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast" which caught my eye.

 

A display in the Chancel was of the decoration of the wooden roof above where panels contained carved beats, some actual and some mythical.

 

I photographed them all.

 

----------------------------------------------------

 

All Saints is a large, remarkably good church in one of the sleepy, fat villages along the Cambridgeshire border, the sort of place you cycle through and imagine wistfully that you've won the lottery and could move there. The wide churchyard on both sides is a perfect setting for the church, which rises to heaven out of a perpendicular splendour of aisles, clerestories and battlements. The tower was complete by the 1470s when money was being left for a bell. The earlier chancel steadies the ship, anchoring it to earth quietly, although the tall east window has its spectacular moment too. And you step into a deliciously well-kept interior, full of interest.

One of the most significant medieval survivals here is not easily noticed. This is the range of 15th Century glass, which was reset by the Victorians high in the clerestory. This seems a curious thing to have done, since it defeats the purpose of a clerestory, but if they had not done so then we might have lost it. The glass matches the tracery in the north aisle windows, so that is probably where they came from. There are angels, three Saints and some shields, most of which are heraldic but two show the instruments of the passion and the Holy Trinity. I would not be surprised to learn that some of the shields are 19th century, but the figures are all original late 15th or early 16th century. The Saints are an unidentified Bishop, the hacksaw-wielding St Faith and one of my favourites, St Apollonia. She it was who was invoked by medieval people against toothache.

 

Waling from the nave up into the chancel, the space created by the clearing of clutter makes it at once mysterious and beautiful. Above, the early 16th century waggon roof is Suffolk's best of its kind. Mortlock points out the little angels bearing scrolls, the wheat ears and the vine sprays, and the surviving traces of colour. The low side window on the south side still has its hinges, for here it was that updraught to the rood would have sent the candles flickering in the mystical church of the 14th century. On the south side of the sanctuary is an exquisitely carved arched recess, that doesn't appear to have ever had a door, and may have been a very rare purpose-built Easter sepulchre at the time of the 1330s rebuilding. Opposite is a huge and stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast. It is one of the most significant Decorated moments in Suffolk.

 

On the floor of the chancel there is a tiny, perfect chalice brass, one of only two surviving in Suffolk. The other is at Rendham. Not far away is the indent of another chalice brass - or perhaps it was for the same one, and the brass has been moved for some reason. There are two chalice indents at Westhall, but nowhere else in Suffolk. Chalice brasses were popular memorials for Priests in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and thus were fair game for reformers. Heigham memorials of the late 16th century are on the walls. Back in the south aisle there is a splendid tombchest in Purbeck marble. It has lost its brasses, but the indents show us where they were, as do other indents in the aisle floors. Some heraldic brass shields survive, and show that Heighams were buried here. Brass inscriptions survive in the nave and the chancel, dating from the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

 

The 14th century font is a good example of the tracery pattern series that appeared in the decades before the Black Death. They may have been intended to spread ideas at that time of great artistic and intellectual flowering before it was so cruelly snatched away. The cover is 17th Century. At this end of the nave are two good ranges of medieval benches, one, rare in East Anglia, is a group of 14th Century benches with pierced tracery backs. Some of them appear to spell out words, and Mortlock thought one might say Salaman Sayet. The block of benches to the north appears to be 15th Century or possibly early 16th Century. Further north, the early 17th Century benches are simpler, even cruder, and were likely the work of the village carpenter.

 

All rather lovely then. And yet, it hasn't always been that way. All Saints at Gazeley, near Newmarket, was the first church that I visited after an international team of scientists conclusively proved that God did not exist began the first page for this church that I wrote in 2003, in a satirical mood after finding the church locked and at a very low ebb. At a time when congregations were generally falling, I'd been thinking about the future of medieval churches beyond a time when they would have people to use them in the traditional way. I wondered if the buildings might find new uses, or could adapt themselves to changing patterns and emphases in Christianity, or even changing spiritual needs of their parishes. Even if science could somehow prove that God did not exist, I suggested, there were parishes which would rise to the challenge and reinvent themselves, as churches have always done over the two millennia of Christianity. Coming to Gazeley I felt that here was a church which felt as if it had been abandoned. And yet, it seemed to me a church of such significance, such historical and spiritual importance, that its loss would be a disaster. If it had been clean, tidy and open at the time he was visiting, Simon Jenkins England's Thousand Best Churches would not have been able to resist it. Should the survival of such a treasure store depend upon the existence of God or the continued practice of the Christian faith? Or might there be other reasons to keep this extraordinary building in something like its present integrity?

 

In the first decade of the 21st Century, Gazeley church went on a tremendous journey, from being moribund to being the wonderful church you can visit today. If you want to read the slightly adapted 2006 entry for Gazeley, recounting this journey, you can do so here. Coming back here today always fills me with optimism for what can be achieved. On one occasion I mentioned my experiences of Gazeley church to a Catholic Priest friend of mine, and he said he hoped I knew I'd seen the power of the Holy Spirit at work. And perhaps that is so. Certainly, the energy and imagination of the people here have been fired by something. On that occasion I had wanted to find someone to ask about it, to find out how things stood now. But there was no one, and so the building spoke for them.

 

Back outside in the graveyard, the dog daisies clustered and waved their sun-kissed faces in the light breeze. The ancient building must have known many late-May days like this over the centuries, but think of all the changes that it has known inside! The general buffeting of the winds of history still leaves room for local squalls and lightning strikes. All Saints has known these, but for now a blessed calm reigns here. Long may it remain so.

 

Simon Knott, June 2019

 

www.suffolkchurches.co.uk/gazeley.htm

Martianus Capella, Mailand. Ambr. F. 119 Sup Ital., fol. 18v (detail); 14th cent. Abb. 1 in: TEZMEN-SIEGEL, Jutta (1985). Die Darstellung der 'septem artes liberales' in der Bildenden Kunst als Rezeption der Lehrplangeschichte. tuduv-Verlagsgesellschaft, Munchen. ISBN 3-88073-167-5

---

FOUR - Marten Kuilman (p.390):

The 'quadrivium' is the name for a part of the mediaeval curriculum, as it was derived from the seven 'artes liberales'. The 'artes liberales' were distinguished by bishop and philosopher Augustine (354 - 430 AD) in an effort to give (Latin) education a theoretical framework. The 'artes' were, later, divided in two parts, reflecting the 'human' and the 'natural' sciences:

 

the 'trivium'

 

grammatica

rhetorica

dialectica

 

the 'quadrivium'

 

arithmetica

geometrica

astronomica

harmonia (music)

  

FOUR - Marten Kuilman p. 392ff

The division of knowledge found its roots in classical times. The Greek oral tradition (the 'epic cycles') and Roman rhetorical rules (expressed by Cicero) used divisions in the art of memory. This art was, according to legend, invented by the poet Simonides of Ceos, who realized that orderly arrangement was essential for a good memory. Cicero tells the story of the named poet, who established the identity of mutilated bodies after the roof of the banqueting hall collapsed. He remembered the seating of the guests at a banquet, which he had left just minutes before.

 

Four operations can be used to improve memory (PILTZ, 1981; p. 223):

 

1. Use pictures, which resemble what you are trying to remember. These pictures should be slightly out of the ordinary and stand out against a certain background;

 

2. A systematic attention is necessary and a certain order must be introduced;

 

3. A selection of the things to remember is of prime importance because the more firmly something is etched in our senses, the more difficult it is to escape our memory;

 

4. Meditation about the choice is necessary all the time: 'it is meditation that saves the memory'.

 

A logical result of the systematic attention (of the second step) is the introduction of a division. The choice of a division introduces, in a philosophical environment, a cognitive environment: the elementary dual, tri- or quadripartitions reveal the frame of mind in which decisions are taken.

'The actual grouping of the four branches went back to Plato, as well as to Archytas, in the fourth century before Christ', stated Pearl KIBRE (in: MASI, 1981; p. 69). Their common nominator and purpose were a definition of quantity, expressed in a language of 'mathematica' (or 'quadriviales'): 'And this quantity was either discontinuous or continuous, that is discontinuous either per se as in arithmetic, or in relation to another, as in music or harmony; and continuous either without motion as in geometry, or in motion as in astronomy. Thus the quadripartition was specifically that of quantity' (MERLAN, 1960; pp. 94 - 95).

An important contribution to structural thinking came from the Roman orator and man of letters Marcus Tullius Cicero (Tully), born in 106 BC. Cicero's teacher was Posidonius of Apamea, a man who calculated the earth diameter and had his teachings recorded in the 'Tusculanae Disputationes'. Cicero's keen interest in cosmological matters led to the translation of Plato's 'Timaeus' into Latin (and handed to the West in the Middle Ages an important lead to their 'Greek-Pythagorean' past). He was also the first to mention Euclid, although it is unlikely that a Latin translation of this work existed at the time (no record of any Latin translation of Euclid is known before Boethius, c. AD 480; RUSSELL, 1945; p. 212).

One of Cicero's earlier works was the 'De inventione' (or 'Rhetorici libri duo') written in 84 BC. He defined the basic four virtues. The book was concerned with the first part (of five) of the rhetoric, the 'inventio': the composing of the subject matter of a speech and the collection of 'things' to deal with. The work was often associated with an anonymous work called 'Ad Herennium' (Rhetorica nova), and together they were known in the Middle Ages as the ‘First and Second Rhetorics’ of Tullius (YATES, 1966; p. 36). Cicero personalized the theme with four individuals (Crassus, Marcus Antonius, Quintus Scaevola and Caesar Strabo) in a later work called 'De Oratore' (in three books). The book was written in 55 BC and described the positions in a communication:

 

1. Crassus pointed to knowledge of law and philosophy as a prerequisite for a good communication; Antonius reckoned that natural ability and experience was sufficient;

 

2. Antonius expounded his ideas (in Book 2) with the 'inventio' (the deliberate choice of items to draw the attention of the audience); Caesar highlighted the importance of humour;

 

3. Antonius was in favor of order and a clear structure of the material discussed; and

 

4. Crassus (in Book 3) summarized the preconditions of a competent conversation and considered elegance in style and rhythm as the highest objective.

 

Cicero's thoughts were fully developed in his book 'De Officiis' ('On Moral Duties'; MILLER, 1921), written in his 'days of distraction' towards the end of his life (46 - 43 BC). The four virtues were presented in three books: 1. Moral goodness; 2. Expediency; and 3. The conflict between the right and the expedient. The book was about duty and morality, and gave practical rules to achieve those goals.

The four cardinal virtues were in the centre of attention: wisdom, justice, fortitude (courage) and temperance represented the four stages of communication, aiming at equilibrium in a dynamic environment: 'the rule of the golden mean is best' and 'the whole glory of virtue is in activity'. He also realized that the position taken by an observer in a communication (either voluntary or involuntary) was of prime importance: 'tanta vis est et loci et temporis' (Great is the significance of place and circumstance; Book I, XL, 144). VAN DER ZANDE (1998) vividly described the triumphal reception of Christian Garve's German translation of Cicero's work in 1783.

Varro (116 - 27 BC) presented, in his 'De Novem Disciplinis libri novem' (Nine Books of the Nine Disciplines; 33 - 31 BC), a general view of the curriculum in ancient times. Unfortunately, only fragments of this work remain. 'The most learned man of his times', as Varro was called by Quintilian, added medicine and architecture to the list of primary subjects (KNOWLES, 1962), bringing the total to nine.

The actual (theoretical) division into trivium and quadrivium dated from later than the seventh century (COBBAN, 1975). RAJNA (1928) put the effective introduction of the division during the life of Alcuin (730 - 804; articulated in the 'Horatius'-commentary of Pseudo-Alcuin). RASHDALL (1895/1936, p. 36) insisted that 'the real education of the Dark Ages was the trivium'. The quadrivium was, with retrospective effect, 'filled up by discoveries or rediscoveries of the twelfth-century Renaissance'.

Calvin BOWER (in MASI, 1981; p. 163) stated that 'recent studies have shown that the liberal arts played a rather minor educational role in most of Europe between 500 and 850'. A five-fold division prevailed at that time. The actual duties of the monks in their educational quest were formulated in Charlemagne's 'Capitular 72':

 

psalmi (or liturgy),

notae (writing),

cantus (singing),

computus (calendric studies) and

grammatica (reading).

 

Two writers had a direct influence on the European scholars of the Middle Ages: Martianus Capella and Boethius, both living around 500 AD, at the time when the Roman Empire disappeared from the stage of European cultural history. Both can be seen as vital links between the classical knowledge (and imagery) and the young European culture.

Martianus Capella lived in Cartage and used the classical division of knowledge in his 'De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii' (On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury). The book is an encyclopedia in a popular form and became the leading canon of the 'septem artes liberales' from the sixth to the fourteenth century (STAHL, 1971). The tractate was often attributed to 'Tullius', for instance, by Hieronymus Stridonensis in his letter (#53) to Paulinus of Nola, and associated with Cicero's 'De Inventione'.

The book of Martianus Capella was a tribute to division-thinking in general. Firstly, the marriage, as a unity of two: the allegorical marriage between Mercury and scholarship (Book I-II), the unity of words is three-fold (Philology: Book III - V: Grammatica, Dialectica, Rhetorica) and the unity of things is four-fold (Mercury: Book VII - IX: Geometrica, Arithmetica, Astronomia and Harmonia). Two-hundred-and-forty-one manuscripts of 'De Nuptiis' are known to exist. Eight are illustrated (TEZMEN-SIEGEL, 1985).

The Roman philosopher Boethius was born c. 480 AD in Rome and executed in 524 AD at Pavia. He used division-thinking as a guideline in his thoughts (MASI, 1974, 1981; WHITE, 1981). The term 'tessares methodoi' (four methods) was rendered as 'quadrivium', or a place where four roads join (STAHL, 1971; HÜBNER, 1989) in Boethius' translation of Nicomachus of Gerasa's book 'De Arithmetica' (second century AD).

These crossroads marked the four areas of knowledge: 'it is impossible to achieve the summit of perfection in the disciplines of philosophy, unless one approached this noble wisdom by a kind of fourfold way' ('De Arithmetica'; PL. LXIII, 1079D). The following cerebral processes (De Cons. Phil., Book V; in the translation of WATTS (1969), p. 157) were noted to guide a human communication:

 

1. sense-perception

2. imagination

3. reason

4. intelligence (understanding)

 

The transmission of the quadripartite image into the European Middle Ages was intensified by Boethius' 'De Consolatione Philosophiae' (The Consolations of Philosophy), written in jail before his execution on October 23, 524, when he was forty-four years old. In this 'consolatio', or manual for mental health, the goddess 'Philosophia' sings of the power of love in the natural world preserving peace and keeping chaos at bay (in the last poem of Book II). Philosophy moves on (in Book IV, poem 6) to the concord of the elements, of the seasons, and of birth and death's finality.

UHLFELDER (in: MASI, 1981; p. 31) noticed thematic bonds in the thirty-nine poems, which intermingle with the same number of passages in prose: 'Boethius' explicit identification of divisions of the argument proves that there were two coexistent structural principles, one based on the fivefold division into books, and the other on the fourfold stages of the 'plot', with special emphasis on the threefold division of the philosophical argument.'

The world view of Boethius was manifestly put forward in the first poem of Book IV, describing the ascent of the soul to God, the centre of light, and its return.

The human mind travels from the earth through the sky to the sphere of the moon. The lightest element (fire) reaches to the moon. Beyond the moon is the fifth element, the quintessence or ether. The soul succeeds through the sphere of the stars to its ultimate destination: God, the source of light. The (cyclic) movement of the (human) invisibility continues, descending from God, back through the ether, to reach the earth and emanate (again) in a human soul.

At birth the soul emanates or descends to the earth from God, and its ascent is an account of its return. The emanation is described as follows (verses 15 - 26; translated by WATTS, 1969; p. 117/118):

 

And when the orbit's path is done

The furthest heaven it forsakes.

It treads beneath the ether swift

Possessing now the holy light,

For here the King of kings holds sway,

The reins of all things holding tight,

Unmoving moves the chariot fast,

The lord of all things shining bright.

If there the pathway brings you back -

The path you lost and seek anew -

Then, 'I remember,' you will say,

'My home, my source, my ending too.'

 

A 'descriptio' (visual explanation) of Boethius' cosmic consciousness was given in an eleventh-century copy of the book 'De Arithmetica' (Arithmetike eisagoge) by Nicomachus of Gerasa (Jerash, Jordan). This important mathematician lived in the Roman province of Syria from c 60 - 120 AD. Boethius’ ‘De institutione arithmetica’ was a Latin translation of this book (MURDOCH, 1984; p. 102, fig. 97).

Cassiodorus and Isidore of Seville ('Etymologiae') jointed Boethius crucial position in the continuation of classical knowledge into the Middle Ages. They also contributed to the formal use of the system of division of knowledge. Cassiodorus, living towards the end of the sixth century and founder of the monastery of Vivarium in Calabria, wrote a handbook on the liberal arts (the 'Institutiones' or 'Introduction to Divine and Human Readings').

The 'quadrivium' could be seen as a path to abstract knowledge (WHITE, 1981). In terms of a Pythagorean number-symbolism it means, that arithmetic deals with the numbers itself, geometry with the numbers in space, harmony with the numbers in time and astronomy with numbers in space and time (GUTHRIE, 1987). This division reflected the cognitive 'visio', as it was experienced during the apex of medieaval thinking.

A clarifying article on the possible origin of the term 'quadrivium', was written by HÜBNER (1989). He pointed to the difference in age: the term 'quadrivium' was older than the 'trivium'. Boethius never knew the term 'trivium' (MASI, 1981; p. 11). The associated subjects (of the quadrivium) reached prominence only when tetradic thinking itself became visible in a wider sense (from the middle of the eighth century). The general use of the terms 'trivium' and 'quadrivium' dated from the eleventh century (LESNE, 1940; WOLTER, 1959).

The symbolism of the cross-roads was, according to Hübner, more often seen as a metaphor (sometimes in connection with a 'bridge') of the opposition between body and soul: 'this was the way the metaphorical 'quadrivium' was understood in the Middle Ages'. A reference to Alcuin had to support his view. To draw the symbolism (of the quadrivium) in such a dualistic environment is, in my view, a simplification. It is true that Alcuin was - in his 'Retorica' - a faithful follower of Augustine (HOWELL, 1941), who felt attracted to lower division-thinking. However, Alcuin - the 'educator of Europe', originating from York and a teacher of Charlemagne - distinguished himself from Augustine and brought a 'Celtic' flavor to his teaching.

Augustine - who had earlier crossed the Channel to England (in 596 AD) - was a representative of the 'Roman' interpretation of Christianity, with its emphasis on opposition. Now (some two hundred years later) Alcuin returned the tetradic mood back to the Continent and brought with it a reintroduction of the liberal arts. He referred to the arts in his 'Grammatica' as seven gifts of the Holy Spirit and as the seven steps to the study of philosophy (PL 101, col. 853).

Rhabanus Maurus (c. 784 - 856) showed interest (but little knowledge) in the liberal arts in his 'De Clericorum Institutione'. Book III is a reworking of Isidore's description of the arts with slight additions. A 'Grammatica' attributed to Clemens Scotus, of Irish origin and composed around 800 AD, divided philosophy in three genera (physics, ethics and logic) and divided physics in turn in four principal parts, the four mathematical arts or 'quadrivium philosophiae' (quoting Boethius' mathematical work for the first time). John Scotus Erigena quoted an even more extended passage from the 'Proemium' of Boethius' arithmetical treatise in Book I of his 'De Divisione Naturae'.

'It is no coincidence', according to BOWER (in : MASI, 1981; p. 167), 'that both names citing Boethius contain the term 'scottus', for the revival of the liberal arts and of speculative philosophical thought in the ninth century was largely the result of the work of 'scotti peregrinantes'. They brought to the continent, along with their love of learning and speculative thinking, many books that had been basically unknown for several centuries.'

The education at the Carolingian monastery schools was given at three levels (PILTZ, 1981; p. 15), inspired by a practical approach:

 

1. The first step consisted in the learning of the elementary principles of writing, reading and singing, some grammar and an explanation of the calendar.

 

2. The next step was a study of the seven liberal arts ('septem artes liberales'), divided into the 'trivium', i.e. grammar, rhetoric and dialectic, and the 'quadrivium', consisting of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (fig. 252). The seven liberal arts were mentioned by Plato in his 'De Republica' (The Republic, book VII; LARSON, 1979) and are part of the Platonian system of 'planned education' (COBBAN, 1975).

 

3. The final step in the Carolingian cathedral and monastery schools was the actual preparation to the task as a priest and the practical familiarity with the skills of priesthood, like the reading and interpreting the Scriptures and teaching the catechism.

 

The cathedral school of Chartres became in the early twelfth century, under the guidance of Thierry of Chartres, a centre of the 'exact' sciences of the quadrivium (STODDARD, 1966; MASI, 1983). Plato's 'Timaeus' (in the adaptation of Chalcidius, living in the fourth century) was the major point of departure. It was thought possible to learn more about God within the structural setting of nature. The study of nature was therefore regarded as a devotion to the almighty God.

'For three centuries, from the thirteenth century until the revolutionary changes that took place at the beginning of the sixteenth century, all people in Europe with any claim to education at all could make themselves understood to each other. This was not only because they shared a common language in Latin. What is more remarkable is that they shared a common world picture and uniform terminology for describing it', said Anders PILTZ (1981) in the preface of his book on 'The World of Medieval Learning'. This unity was mainly due to the Roman Catholic Church and its schools associated with churches and cloisters.

The ever-present current of Neo-Platonism in the European cultural history favored the reciprocity between the Idea and Nature and showed therefore an interest in the quadrivium. The scholar Gemistus (Plethon), for instance, living in Mistra (southern Greece), some two hundred years later, was educated in the trivium and quadrivium (FUCHS, 1926; MASAI, 1956; p. 55)

The transfer of knowledge in the Middle Ages followed an established, trodden path. VERGER (1973, p. 13) noted in his expose of teaching at the universities in the Middle Ages: 'The method was always the same; the master reads the text which had to be learned (lectio) and interrupts his reading by commentaries, which explain the literal sense (sensus) and reveal the deeper meaning of the excerpt (sententia). VERGER (1973) divided the different universities in their way of origin:

 

1. spontaneous (from cloister schools), like Paris, Bologna, Oxford and Montpellier;

 

2. by migration, like Cambridge (1208), Orleans, Padua (1222);

 

3. planned, like Naples (by Frederick II, 1224), Toulouse (1229), and the Spanish universities Palencia, Salamanca and Valladolid.

 

The quadrivium remained favorite in the faculties of arts in Padua, Bologna and particularly Oxford. Furthermore, Toledo, in Spain, was the 'famed city for the teaching of the arts of the quadrivium' (GIMPEL, 1979/1988).

 

Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen "A. P. J." Abdul Kalam (Listeni/ˈæbdʊl kəˈlɑːm/; 15 October 1931 – 27 July 2015) was the 11th President of India from 2002 to 2007. A career scientist turned politician, Kalam was born and raised in Rameswaram, Tamil Nadu, and studied physics and aerospace engineering. He spent the next four decades as a scientist and science administrator, mainly at the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and was intimately involved in India's civilian space program and military missile development efforts.[1] He thus came to be known as the Missile Man of India for his work on the development of ballistic missile and launch vehicle technology.[2][3][4] He also played a pivotal organizational, technical, and political role in India's Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998, the first since the original nuclear test by India in 1974.[5]

 

Kalam was elected as the 11th President of India in 2002 with the support of both the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party and the then-opposition Indian National Congress. Widely referred to as the "People's President,"[6] he returned to his civilian life of education, writing and public service after a single term. He was a recipient of several prestigious awards, including the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour.

 

While delivering a lecture at the Indian Institute of Management Shillong, Kalam collapsed and died from an apparent cardiac arrest on 27 July 2015, aged 83.[7] Thousands including national-level dignitaries attended the funeral ceremony held in his hometown of Rameshwaram, where he was buried with full state honours.[8]Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam was born on 15 October 1931 to a Tamil Muslim family in the pilgrimage centre of Rameswaram on Pamban Island, then in the Madras Presidency and now in the State of Tamil Nadu. His father Jainulabudeen was a boat owner and imam of a local mosque;[9] his mother Ashiamma was a housewife.[10][11][12][13] His father owned a ferry that took Hindu pilgrims back and forth between Rameswaram and the now uninhabited Dhanushkodi.[14][15] Kalam was the youngest of four brothers and one sister in his family.[16][17][18] His ancestors had been wealthy traders and landowners, with numerous properties and large tracts of land. Their business had involved trading groceries between the mainland and the island and to and from Sri Lanka, as well as ferrying pilgrims between the mainland and Pamban. As a result, the family acquired the title of "Mara Kalam iyakkivar" (wooden boat steerers), which over the years became shortened to "Marakier." With the opening of the Pamban Bridge to the mainland in 1914, however, the businesses failed and the family fortune and properties were lost over time, apart from the ancestral home.[19] By his early childhood, Kalam's family had become poor; at an early age, he sold newspapers to supplement his family's income.[20][20][21]

 

In his school years, Kalam had average grades but was described as a bright and hardworking student who had a strong desire to learn. He spent hours on his studies, especially mathematics.[21] After completing his education at the Schwartz Higher Secondary School, Ramanathapuram, Kalam went on to attend Saint Joseph's College, Tiruchirappalli, then affiliated with the University of Madras, from where he graduated in physics in 1954.[22] He moved to Madras in 1955 to study aerospace engineering in Madras Institute of Technology.[13] While Kalam was working on a senior class project, the Dean was dissatisfied with his lack of progress and threatened to revoke his scholarship unless the project was finished within the next three days. Kalam met the deadline, impressing the Dean, who later said to him, "I was putting you under stress and asking you to meet a difficult deadline".[23] He narrowly missed achieving his dream of becoming a fighter pilot, as he placed ninth in qualifiers, and only eight positions were available in the IAF.[24]

 

Career as a scientistAfter graduating from the Madras Institute of Technology in 1960, Kalam joined the Aeronautical Development Establishment of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) as a scientist. He started his career by designing a small hovercraft, but remained unconvinced by his choice of a job at DRDO.[26] Kalam was also part of the INCOSPAR committee working under Vikram Sarabhai, the renowned space scientist.[13] In 1969, Kalam was transferred to the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) where he was the project director of India's first Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV-III) which successfully deployed the Rohini satellite in near-earth orbit in July 1980; Kalam had first started work on an expandable rocket project independently at DRDO in 1965.[1] In 1969, Kalam received the government's approval and expanded the programme to include more engineers.[25]

  

Kalam addresses engineering students at IIT Guwahati

In 1963–64, he visited NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia; Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland; and Wallops Flight Facility.[11][27] Between the 1970s and 1990s, Kalam made an effort to develop the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and SLV-III projects, both of which proved to be successful.

 

Kalam was invited by Raja Ramanna to witness the country's first nuclear test Smiling Buddha as the representative of TBRL, even though he had not participated in its development. In the 1970s, Kalam also directed two projects, Project Devil and Project Valiant, which sought to develop ballistic missiles from the technology of the successful SLV programme.[28] Despite the disapproval of the Union Cabinet, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi allotted secret funds for these aerospace projects through her discretionary powers under Kalam's directorship.[28] Kalam played an integral role convincing the Union Cabinet to conceal the true nature of these classified aerospace projects.[28] His research and educational leadership brought him great laurels and prestige in the 1980s, which prompted the government to initiate an advanced missile programme under his directorship.[28] Kalam and Dr V S Arunachalam, metallurgist and scientific adviser to the Defence Minister, worked on the suggestion by the then Defence Minister, R. Venkataraman on a proposal for simultaneous development of a quiver of missiles instead of taking planned missiles one after another.[29] R Venkatraman was instrumental in getting the cabinet approval for allocating ₹388 crores for the mission, named Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) and appointed Kalam as the chief executive.[29] Kalam played a major part in developing many missiles under the mission including Agni, an intermediate range ballistic missile and Prithvi, the tactical surface-to-surface missile, although the projects have been criticised for mismanagement and cost and time overruns.[29][30]

 

Kalam served as the Chief Scientific Adviser to the Prime Minister and the Secretary of the Defence Research and Development Organisation from July 1992 to December 1999. The Pokhran-II nuclear tests were conducted during this period in which he played an intensive political and technological role. Kalam served as the Chief Project Coordinator, along with Rajagopala Chidambaram, during the testing phase.[11][31] Media coverage of Kalam during this period made him the country's best known nuclear scientist.[32] However, the director of the site test, K Santhanam, said that the thermonuclear bomb had been a "fizzle" and criticisied Kalam for issuing an incorrect report.[33] Both Kalam and Chidambaram dismissed the claims.[34]

 

In 1998, along with cardiologist Soma Raju, Kalam developed a low cost coronary stent, named the "Kalam-Raju Stent".[35][36] In 2012, the duo designed a rugged tablet computer for health care in rural areas, which was named the "Kalam-Raju Tablet".[37]

 

Presidency

Kalam served as the 11th President of India, succeeding K. R. Narayanan. He won the 2002 presidential election with an electoral vote of 922,884, surpassing the 107,366 votes won by Lakshmi Sahgal. His term lasted from 25 July 2002 to 25 July 2007.[38]

 

On 10 June 2002, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) which was in power at the time, expressed that they would nominate Kalam for the post of President,[39][40] and both the Samajwadi Party and the Nationalist Congress Party backed his candidacy.[41][42] After the Samajwadi Party announced its support for Kalam, Narayanan chose not to seek a second term in office, leaving the field clear.[43] Kalam said of the announcement of his candidature:

 

I am really overwhelmed. Everywhere both in Internet and in other media, I have been asked for a message. I was thinking what message I can give to the people of the country at this juncture.[44]

 

On 18 June, Kalam filed his nomination papers in the Indian Parliament, accompanied by Vajpayee and his senior Cabinet colleagues.[45]

  

Kalam along with Vladimir Putin and Manmohan Singh during his presidency

The polling for the presidential election began on 15 July 2002 in Parliament and the state assemblies, with the media claiming that the election was a one-sided affair and Kalam's victory was a foregone conclusion; the count was held on 18 July.[46] Kalam became the 11th president of the Republic of India in an easy victory,[47] and moved into the Rashtrapati Bhavan after he was sworn in on 25 July.[48] Kalam was the third President of India to have been honoured with a Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour, before becoming the President. Dr Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1954) and Dr Zakir Hussain (1963) were the earlier recipients of Bharat Ratna who later became the President of India.[49] He was also the first scientist and the first bachelor to occupy Rashtrapati Bhawan.[50]

 

During his term as president, he was affectionately known as the People's President,[51][52][53] saying that signing the Office of Profit Bill was the toughest decision he had taken during his tenure.[54][55] Kalam was criticised for his inaction in deciding the fate of 20 out of the 21 mercy petitions submitted to him during his tenure.[56] Article 72 of the Constitution of India empowers the President of India to grant pardons, and suspend or commute the death sentence of convicts on death row.[56][57] Kalam acted on only one mercy plea in his five-year tenure as president, rejecting the plea of rapist Dhananjoy Chatterjee, who was later hanged.[56] Perhaps the most notable plea was from Afzal Guru, a Kashmiri terrorist who was convicted of conspiracy in the December 2001 attack on the Indian Parliament and was sentenced to death by the Supreme Court of India in 2004.[57] While the sentence was scheduled to be carried out on 20 October 2006, the pending action on his mercy plea resulted in him remaining on death row.[57] He also took the controversial decision to impose President's Rule in Bihar in 2005.[58]

 

In September 2003, in an interactive session in PGI Chandigarh, Kalam supported the need of Uniform Civil Code in India, keeping in view the population of the country.[59][60][61][62]

 

At the end of his term, on 20 June 2007, Kalam expressed his willingness to consider a second term in office provided there was certainty about his victory in the 2007 presidential election.[63] However, two days later, he decided not to contest the Presidential election again stating that he wanted to avoid involving Rashtrapati Bhavan from any political processes.[64] He did not have the support of the left parties, Shiv Sena and UPA constituents, to receive a renewed mandate.[65][66]

 

Nearing the expiry of the term of the 12th President Pratibha Patil on 24 July 2012, media reports in April claimed that Kalam was likely to be nominated for his second term.[67][68][69] After the reports, social networking sites witnessed a number of people supporting his candidature.[70][71] The BJP potentially backed his nomination, saying that the party would lend their support if the Trinamool Congress, Samajwadi Party and Indian National Congress proposed him for the 2012 presidential election.[72][73] A month ahead of the election, Mulayam Singh Yadav and Mamata Banerjee also expressed their support for Kalam.[74] Days afterwards, Mulayam Singh Yadav backed out, leaving Mamata Banerjee as the solitary supporter.[75] On 18 June 2012, Kalam declined to contest the 2012 presidential poll. He said of his decision not to do so:

 

Many, many citizens have also expressed the same wish. It only reflects their love and affection for me and the aspiration of the people. I am really overwhelmed by this support. This being their wish, I respect it. I want to thank them for the trust they have in me.[76]

 

Post-presidency

After leaving office, Kalam became a visiting professor at the Indian Institute of Management Shillong, the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, and the Indian Institute of Management Indore; an honorary fellow of Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore;[77] chancellor of the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology Thiruvananthapuram; professor of Aerospace Engineering at Anna University; and an adjunct at many other academic and research institutions across India. He taught information technology at the International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad, and technology at Banaras Hindu University and Anna University.[78]

 

In May 2012, Kalam launched a programme for the youth of India called the What Can I Give Movement, with a central theme of defeating corruption.[79][80]

 

In 2011, Kalam was criticised by civil groups over his stand on the Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant; he supported the establishment of the nuclear power plant and was accused of not speaking with the local people.[81] The protesters were hostile to his visit as they perceived to him to be a pro-nuclear scientist and were unimpressed by the assurances provided by him regarding the safety features of the plant.[82]

 

Death

 

Kalam at Bijnor a week before his death

Wikinews has related news: Former Indian president APJ Abdul Kalam dies at age 83

On 27 July 2015, Kalam travelled to Shillong to deliver a lecture on "Creating a Livable Planet Earth" at the Indian Institute of Management Shillong. While climbing a flight of stairs, he experienced some discomfort, but was able to enter the auditorium after a brief rest.[83] At around 6:35 p.m. IST, only five minutes into his lecture, he collapsed.[84][85] He was rushed to the nearby Bethany Hospital in a critical condition; upon arrival, he lacked a pulse or any other signs of life.[84] Despite being placed in the intensive care unit, Kalam was confirmed dead of a sudden cardiac arrest at 7:45 p.m IST.[84][86][87] His last words, to his aide Srijan Pal Singh, were reportedly: "Funny guy! Are you doing well?"[88]

 

Following his death, Kalam's body was airlifted in an Indian Air Force helicopter from Shillong to Guwahati, from where it was flown to New Delhi on the morning of 28 July in an air force C-130J Hercules. The flight landed at Palam Air Base that afternoon and was received by the President, the Prime Minister, Chief Minister of Delhi Arvind Kejriwal, and the three service chiefs of the Indian Armed Forces, who laid wreaths on Kalam's body.[89] His body was then placed on a gun carriage draped with the Indian flag and taken to his Delhi residence at 10 Rajaji Marg; there, the public and numerous dignitaries paid homage, including former prime minister Manmohan Singh, Congress President Sonia Gandhi and Vice-President Rahul Gandhi, and Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav.[90]

 

On the morning of 29 July, Kalam's body, wrapped in the Indian flag, was taken to Palam Air Base and flown to Madurai in an air force C-130J aircraft, arriving at Madurai Airport that afternoon. His body was received at the airport by the three service chiefs and national and state dignitaries, including cabinet ministers Manohar Parrikar, Venkaiah Naidu, Pon Radhakrishnan and the governors of Tamil Nadu and Meghalaya, K Rosaiah and V. Shanmuganathan. After a brief ceremony, Kalam's body was flown by air force helicopter to the town of Mandapam, from where it was taken in an army truck to his hometown of Rameswaram. Upon arriving at Rameswaram, his body was displayed in an open area in front of the local bus station to allow the public to pay their final respects until 8 p.m. that evening.[91][92]

 

On 30 July 2015, the former President was laid to rest at Rameswaram's Pei Karumbu Ground with full state honours. Over 350,000 people attended the last rites, including the Prime Minister, the governor of Tamil Nadu and the chief ministers of Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh.[93][94]

 

Reactions

 

Prime Minister Narendra Modi lays a wreath at Kalam's body, on arrival at Palam Air Base.

India reacted to Kalam's death with an outpouring of grief; numerous tributes were paid to the former President across the nation and on social media.[95] The Government of India declared a seven-day state mourning period as a mark of respect.[96] President Pranab Mukherjee, Vice President Hamid Ansari, Home Minister Rajnath Singh, and other leaders condoled the former President's demise.[86] Prime Minister Narendra Modi said "[Dr. Kalam's] death is a great loss to the scientific community. He took India to great heights. He showed the way."[97] Former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, who had served as prime minister under Kalam, said, "our country has lost a great human being who made phenomenal contributions to the promotion of self reliance in defence technologies. I worked very closely with Dr. Kalam as prime minister and I greatly benefited from his advice as president of our country. His life and work will be remembered for generations to come."[98] ISRO chairman A. S. Kiran Kumar called his former colleague "a great personality and a gentleman", while former chairman G. Madhavan Nair described Kalam as "a global leader" for whom "the downtrodden and poor people were his priority. He always had a passion to convey what is in his mind to the young generation", adding that his death left a vacuum which none could fill.[99][100]

 

South Asian leaders expressed condolences and lauded the late statesman. The Bhutanese government ordered the country's flags to fly at half-staff to mourn Kalam's death, and lit 1000 butter lamps in homage. Bhutanese Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay expressed deep sadness, saying Kalam "was a leader greatly admired by all people, especially the youth of India who have referred to him as the people's President".[101] Bangladesh Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina described Kalam as "a rare combination of a great statesman, acclaimed scientist, and a source of inspiration to the young generation of South Asia" and termed his death an "irreparable loss to India and beyond". Bangladesh Nationalist Party chief Khaleda Zia said "as a nuclear scientist, he engaged himself in the welfare of the people". Ashraf Ghani, the President of Afghanistan, called Kalam "an inspirational figure to millions of people," noting that "we have a lot to learn from his life". Nepalese Prime Minister Sushil Koirala recalled Kalam's scientific contributions to India: "Nepal has lost a good friend and I have lost an honoured and ideal personality." The President of Pakistan, Mamnoon Hussain, and Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif also expressed their grief and condolences on his death.[102][103][104] The President of Sri Lanka, Maithripala Sirisena, also expressed his condolences. "Dr. Kalam was a man of firm conviction and indomitable spirit, and I saw him as an outstanding statesman of the world. His death is an irreparable loss not only to India but to the entire world."[105] Maldivian President Abdulla Yameen and Vice President Ahmed Adheeb condoled Kalam's death, with Yameen naming him as a close friend of the Maldives who would continue to be an inspiration to Indians and generations of South Asians. Former president Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, who had made an official visit to India during Kalam's presidency, termed his demise as a great loss to all of humankind.[106] The Commander-in-Chief of the Myanmar Armed Forces, Senior General Min Aung Hlaing, expressed condolences on behalf of the Myanmar government.[107] The Dalai Lama expressed his sadness and offered condolences and prayers, calling Kalam's death "an irreparable loss".[108]

 

Kathleen Wynne, the Premier of Ontario, which Kalam had visited on numerous occasions, expressed "deepest condolences ... as a respected scientist, he played a critical role in the development of the Indian space program. As a committed educator, he inspired millions of young people to achieve their very best. And as a devoted leader, he gained support both at home and abroad, becoming known as 'the people's President'. I join our Indo–Canadian families, friends, and neighbours in mourning the passing of this respected leader."[109] United States President Barack Obama extended "deepest condolences to the people of India on the passing of former Indian President Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam", and highlighted his achievements as a scientist and as a statesman, notably his role in strengthening U.S.–India relations and increasing space cooperation between the two nations. "Suitably named 'the People's President', Dr. Kalam's humility and dedication to public service served as an inspiration to millions of Indians and admirers around the world."[110] Russian President Vladimir Putin expressed sincere condolences and conveyed his sympathy and support "to the near and dear ones of the deceased leader, to the government, and entire people of India". He remarked on Kalam's outstanding "personal contribution to the social, economic, scientific, and technical progress of India and in ensuring its national security," adding that Dr. Kalam would be remembered as a "consistent exponent of closer friendly relations between our nations, who has done a lot for cementing mutually beneficial Russian–Indian cooperation."[111] Other international leaders—including former Indonesian president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak, Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, President of the United Arab Emirates Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, and Vice President and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and emir of Dubai Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum—also paid tribute to Kalam.[112][113] In a special gesture, Secretary-General of the United Nations Ban Ki-moon visited the Permanent Mission of India to the UN and signed a condolence book. "The outpouring of grief around the world is a testament of the respect and inspiration he has garnered during and after his presidency. The UN joins the people of India in sending our deepest condolences for this great statesman. May he rest in peace and eternity", Ban wrote in his message.[114]

 

Personal life

Kalam was the youngest of five siblings, the eldest of whom was a sister, Asim Zohra (d. 1997), followed by three elder brothers: Mohammed Muthu Meera Lebbai Maraikayar (b. 1916; aged 99), Mustafa Kamal (d. 1999) and Kasim Mohammed (d. 1995).[115] He was extremely close to his elder siblings and their extended families throughout his life, and would regularly send small sums of money to his older relations, himself remaining a lifelong bachelor.[115][116]

 

Kalam was noted for his integrity and his simple lifestyle.[116] He never owned a television, and was in the habit of rising at 6:30 or 7 a.m and sleeping by 2 a.m.[117] His few personal possessions included his books, his veena, some articles of clothing, a CD player and a laptop; at his death, he left no will, and his possessions went to his eldest brother, who survived him.[118][119]

 

In the 2011 Hindi film I Am Kalam, Kalam is portrayed as a positive influence on a poor but bright Rajasthani boy named Chhotu, who renames himself Kalam in honour of his idol.[120]

 

Religious and spiritual views

Religion and spirituality were very important to Kalam throughout his life.[121] In fact, he made his own spiritual journey the subject of his final book, Transcendence: My Spiritual Experiences with Pramukh Swamiji.[122][123]

 

Islam

A proud and practicing Muslim, daily namāz and fasting during Ramadan were integral to Kalam's life.[9][124][125] His father, the imam of a mosque in his hometown of Rameswaram, had strictly instilled these Islamic customs in his children.[9] His father had also impressed upon the young Kalam the value of interfaith respect and dialogue. As Kalam recalled: "Every evening, my father A.P. Jainulabdeen, an imam, Pakshi Lakshmana Sastry, the head priest of the Ramanathaswamy Hindu temple, and a church priest used to sit with hot tea and discuss the issues concerning the island."[122][126] Such early exposure convinced Kalam that the answers to India's multitudinous issues lay in "dialogue and cooperation" among the country's religious, social, and political leaders.[124] Moreover, since Kalam believed that "respect for other faiths" was one of the key cornerstones of Islam, he was fond of saying: "For great men, religion is a way of making friends; small people make religion a fighting tool."[127]

 

Syncretism

One component of Kalam's widespread popularity among diverse groups in India, and an enduring aspect of his legacy, is the syncretism he embodied in appreciating various elements of the many spiritual and cultural traditions of India.[124][125][128][129] In addition to his faith in the Koran and Islamic practice, Kalam was well-versed in Hindu traditions; he learnt Sanskrit,[130][131] read the Bhagavad Gita[132][133] and he was a vegetarian.[134] Kalam also enjoyed writing Tamil poetry, playing the veena (a South Indian string instrument),[135] and listening to Carnatic devotional music every day.[125] In 2002, in one of his early speeches to Parliament after becoming President, he reiterated his desire for a more united India, stating that "[d]uring the last one year I met a number of spiritual leaders of all religions ... [and] I would like to endeavour to work for bringing about unity of minds among the divergent traditions of our country".[128] Describing Kalam as a unifier of diverse traditions, Congress leader Shashi Tharoor stated, "Kalam was a complete Indian, an embodiment of the eclecticism of India's heritage of diversity".[125] BJP leader L. K. Advani concurred that Kalam was "the best exemplar of the Idea of India, one who embodied the best of all the cultural and spiritual traditions that signify India's unity in immense diversity. This was most strikingly evident in the last book he wrote, presciently titled Transcendence: My Spiritual Experiences with Pramukh Swami.[129]

 

Pramukh Swami as Guru

Kalam's desire to meet spiritual leaders to help create a more prosperous, spiritual, and unified India was what initially led him to meet Pramukh Swami, the Hindu guru of the BAPS Swaminarayan Sampradaya, who Kalam would come to consider his ultimate spiritual teacher and guru.[122][124] The first of eight meetings between Kalam and Pramukh Swami over a fourteen-year period took place on 30 June 2001 in New Delhi, during which Kalam described being immediately drawn to Pramukh Swami's simplicity and spiritual purity.[136] Kalam stated that he was inspired by Pramukh Swami throughout their numerous interactions. One such incident occurred the day following the terrorist attack on BAPS' Akshardham, Gandhinagar complex in September 2002; Pramukh Swami prayed for, and sprinkled holy water upon, the sites of all of the deceased, including the terrorists, demonstrating the view that all human life is sacred. Kalam recalled being moved by Pramukh Swami's equanimity and compassion, citing this incident as one of his motivations for writing Transcendence: My Spiritual Experiences with Pramukh Swamiji.[137] Summarizing the effect that Pramukh Swami had on him, Kalam stated that "[Pramukh Swami] has indeed transformed me. He is the ultimate stage of the spiritual ascent in my life ... Pramukh Swamiji has put me in a God-synchronous orbit. No manoeuvres are required any more, as I am placed in my final position in eternity."[124][138] Following Kalam's death a month after his final book was released, co-author Arun Tiwari pointed to this passage as potentially prophetic and premonitory of Kalam's death.[139]

 

Writings

 

A P J Abdul Kalam delivering a speech

In his book India 2020, Kalam strongly advocated an action plan to develop India into a "knowledge superpower" and a developed nation by the year 2020. He regarded his work on India's nuclear weapons programme as a way to assert India's place as a future superpower.[140]

 

I have identified five areas where India has a core competence for integrated action: (1) agriculture and food processing; (2) education and healthcare; (3) information and communication technology; (4) infrastructure, reliable and quality electric power, surface transport and infrastructure for all parts of the country; and (5) self-reliance in critical technologies. These five areas are closely inter-related and if advanced in a coordinated way, will lead to food, economic and national security.

 

Kalam describes a "transformative moment" in his life when he asked Pramukh Swami, the guru of the BAPS Swaminarayan Sampradaya, how India might realize this five-pronged vision of development. Pramukh Swami's answer—to add a sixth area developing faith in God and spirituality to overcome the current climate of crime and corruption—became the spiritual vision for the next 15 years Kalam's life, which he describes in his final book, Transcendence: My Spiritual Experiences with Pramukh Swamiji, published just a month before his death.[136]

 

It was reported that there was considerable demand in South Korea for translated versions of books authored by him.[141]

 

Kalam took an active interest in other developments in the field of science and technology, including a research programme for developing biomedical implants. He also supported open source technology over proprietary software, predicting that the use of free software on a large scale would bring the benefits of information technology to more people.[142]

 

Kalam set a target of interacting with 100,000 students during the two years after his resignation from the post of scientific adviser in 1999.[21] He explained, "I feel comfortable in the company of young people, particularly high school students. Henceforth, I intend to share with them experiences, helping them to ignite their imagination and preparing them to work for a developed India for which the road map is already available."[21]

 

Awards and honours

 

An Indian Post commemorative postage stamp on A. P. J. Abdul Kalam - issued on October 15, 2015

Kalam received honorary doctorates from 40 universities.[143][144] The Government of India honoured him with the Padma Bhushan in 1981 and the Padma Vibhushan in 1990 for his work with ISRO and DRDO and his role as a scientific advisor to the Government.[145] In 1997, Kalam received India's highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna, for his contribution to the scientific research and modernisation of defence technology in India.[146] In 2013, he was the recipient of the Von Braun Award from the National Space Society "to recognize excellence in the management and leadership of a space-related project".[147]

 

Following his death, Kalam received numerous tributes. The Tamil Nadu state government announced that his birthday, 15 October, would be observed across the state as "Youth Renaissance Day;" the state government further instituted the "Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Award," constituting an 8-gram gold medal, a certificate and ₹500,000 (US$7,400). The award will be awarded annually on Independence Day, beginning in 2015, to residents of the state with achievements in promoting scientific growth, the humanities or the welfare of students.[148]

 

On occasion of his birth day (2015), CBSE has given the topics on his name in the CBSE expression series.[149]

 

The Prime Minister, Mr. Narendra Modi released the commemorative postal stamps on the former President of India, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, on his 84th birth anniversary celebrations, at DRDO Bhawan, in New Delhi on October 15, 2015.

 

Educational and scientific institutions

Several educational and scientific institutions and other locations were renamed or named in honour of Kalam following his death.

 

An agricultural college at Kishanganj, Bihar, was renamed the "Dr. Kalam Agricultural College, Kishanganj" by the Bihar state government on the day of Kalam's funeral. The state government also announced it would name a proposed science city after Kalam.[150]

Uttar Pradesh Technical University (UPTU) was renamed "A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University" by the Uttar Pradesh state government.[151]

A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Memorial Travancore Institute of Digestive Diseases, a new research institute in Kollam city, Kerala attached to the Travancore Medical College Hospital.[152]

A new academic complex at Mahatma Gandhi University in Kerala.[153]

A new science centre and planetarium in Lawspet, Puducherry.[154]

India and the US have launched the Fulbright-Kalam Climate Fellowship In September 2014. The first call for applicants was announced on Friday March 12, 2016, for the fellowship which will enable up to 6 Indian PhD students and post-doctoral researchers to work with US host institutions for a period of 6–12 months. The fellowship will be operated by the binational US-India Educational Foundation (USIEF) under theFulbright programme.[155]

Island

Wheeler Island, a national missile test site in Odisha, was renamed Abdul Kalam Island in September 2015.[156]

All Saints, Gazeley, Suffolk.

 

There was never any doubt I would go to Rob's funeral. Rob was born just two weeks before me, and in our many meetings, we found we had so much in common.

 

A drive to Ipswich should be something like only two and a half hours, but with the Dartford Crossing that could balloon to four or more.

 

My choice was to leave early, soon after Jools left for work, or wait to near nine once rush hour was over. If I was up early, I'd leave early, I said.

 

Which is what happened.

 

So, after coffee and Jools leaving, I loaded my camera stuff in the car, not bothering to program in a destination, as I knew the route to Suffolk so well.

 

Checking the internet I found the M2 was closed, so that meant taking the M20, which I like as it runs beside HS2, although over the years, vegetation growth now hides most of it, and with Eurostar cutting services due to Brexit, you're lucky to see a train on the line now.

 

I had a phone loaded with podcasts, so time flew by, even if travelling through the endless roadworks at 50mph seemed to take forever.

 

Dartford was jammed. But we inched forward, until as the bridge came in sight, traffic moved smoothly, and I followed the traffic down into the east bore of the tunnel.

 

Another glorious morning for travel, the sun shone from a clear blue sky, even if traffic was heavy, but I had time, so not pressing on like I usually do, making the drive a pleasant one.

 

Up through Essex, where most other traffic turned off at Stanstead, then up to the A11 junction, with it being not yet nine, I had several hours to fill before the ceremony.

 

I stopped at Cambridge services for breakfast, then programmed the first church in: Gazeley, which is just in Suffolk on the border with Cambridgeshire.

 

I took the next junction off, took two further turnings brought be to the village, which is divided by one of the widest village streets I have ever seen.

 

It was five past nine: would the church be open?

 

I parked on the opposite side of the road, grabbed my bag and camera, limped over, passing a warden putting new notices in the parish notice board. We exchange good mornings, and I walk to the porch.

 

The inner door was unlocked, and the heavy door swung after turning the metal ring handle.

 

I had made a list of four churches from Simon's list of the top 60 Suffolk churches, picking those on or near my route to Ipswich and which piqued my interest.

 

Here, it was the reset mediaeval glass.

 

Needless to say, I had the church to myself, the centuries hanging heavy inside as sunlight flooded in filling the Chancel with warm golden light.

 

Windows had several devotional dials carved in the surrounding stone, and a huge and "stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast" which caught my eye.

 

A display in the Chancel was of the decoration of the wooden roof above where panels contained carved beats, some actual and some mythical.

 

I photographed them all.

 

----------------------------------------------------

 

All Saints is a large, remarkably good church in one of the sleepy, fat villages along the Cambridgeshire border, the sort of place you cycle through and imagine wistfully that you've won the lottery and could move there. The wide churchyard on both sides is a perfect setting for the church, which rises to heaven out of a perpendicular splendour of aisles, clerestories and battlements. The tower was complete by the 1470s when money was being left for a bell. The earlier chancel steadies the ship, anchoring it to earth quietly, although the tall east window has its spectacular moment too. And you step into a deliciously well-kept interior, full of interest.

One of the most significant medieval survivals here is not easily noticed. This is the range of 15th Century glass, which was reset by the Victorians high in the clerestory. This seems a curious thing to have done, since it defeats the purpose of a clerestory, but if they had not done so then we might have lost it. The glass matches the tracery in the north aisle windows, so that is probably where they came from. There are angels, three Saints and some shields, most of which are heraldic but two show the instruments of the passion and the Holy Trinity. I would not be surprised to learn that some of the shields are 19th century, but the figures are all original late 15th or early 16th century. The Saints are an unidentified Bishop, the hacksaw-wielding St Faith and one of my favourites, St Apollonia. She it was who was invoked by medieval people against toothache.

 

Waling from the nave up into the chancel, the space created by the clearing of clutter makes it at once mysterious and beautiful. Above, the early 16th century waggon roof is Suffolk's best of its kind. Mortlock points out the little angels bearing scrolls, the wheat ears and the vine sprays, and the surviving traces of colour. The low side window on the south side still has its hinges, for here it was that updraught to the rood would have sent the candles flickering in the mystical church of the 14th century. On the south side of the sanctuary is an exquisitely carved arched recess, that doesn't appear to have ever had a door, and may have been a very rare purpose-built Easter sepulchre at the time of the 1330s rebuilding. Opposite is a huge and stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast. It is one of the most significant Decorated moments in Suffolk.

 

On the floor of the chancel there is a tiny, perfect chalice brass, one of only two surviving in Suffolk. The other is at Rendham. Not far away is the indent of another chalice brass - or perhaps it was for the same one, and the brass has been moved for some reason. There are two chalice indents at Westhall, but nowhere else in Suffolk. Chalice brasses were popular memorials for Priests in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and thus were fair game for reformers. Heigham memorials of the late 16th century are on the walls. Back in the south aisle there is a splendid tombchest in Purbeck marble. It has lost its brasses, but the indents show us where they were, as do other indents in the aisle floors. Some heraldic brass shields survive, and show that Heighams were buried here. Brass inscriptions survive in the nave and the chancel, dating from the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

 

The 14th century font is a good example of the tracery pattern series that appeared in the decades before the Black Death. They may have been intended to spread ideas at that time of great artistic and intellectual flowering before it was so cruelly snatched away. The cover is 17th Century. At this end of the nave are two good ranges of medieval benches, one, rare in East Anglia, is a group of 14th Century benches with pierced tracery backs. Some of them appear to spell out words, and Mortlock thought one might say Salaman Sayet. The block of benches to the north appears to be 15th Century or possibly early 16th Century. Further north, the early 17th Century benches are simpler, even cruder, and were likely the work of the village carpenter.

 

All rather lovely then. And yet, it hasn't always been that way. All Saints at Gazeley, near Newmarket, was the first church that I visited after an international team of scientists conclusively proved that God did not exist began the first page for this church that I wrote in 2003, in a satirical mood after finding the church locked and at a very low ebb. At a time when congregations were generally falling, I'd been thinking about the future of medieval churches beyond a time when they would have people to use them in the traditional way. I wondered if the buildings might find new uses, or could adapt themselves to changing patterns and emphases in Christianity, or even changing spiritual needs of their parishes. Even if science could somehow prove that God did not exist, I suggested, there were parishes which would rise to the challenge and reinvent themselves, as churches have always done over the two millennia of Christianity. Coming to Gazeley I felt that here was a church which felt as if it had been abandoned. And yet, it seemed to me a church of such significance, such historical and spiritual importance, that its loss would be a disaster. If it had been clean, tidy and open at the time he was visiting, Simon Jenkins England's Thousand Best Churches would not have been able to resist it. Should the survival of such a treasure store depend upon the existence of God or the continued practice of the Christian faith? Or might there be other reasons to keep this extraordinary building in something like its present integrity?

 

In the first decade of the 21st Century, Gazeley church went on a tremendous journey, from being moribund to being the wonderful church you can visit today. If you want to read the slightly adapted 2006 entry for Gazeley, recounting this journey, you can do so here. Coming back here today always fills me with optimism for what can be achieved. On one occasion I mentioned my experiences of Gazeley church to a Catholic Priest friend of mine, and he said he hoped I knew I'd seen the power of the Holy Spirit at work. And perhaps that is so. Certainly, the energy and imagination of the people here have been fired by something. On that occasion I had wanted to find someone to ask about it, to find out how things stood now. But there was no one, and so the building spoke for them.

 

Back outside in the graveyard, the dog daisies clustered and waved their sun-kissed faces in the light breeze. The ancient building must have known many late-May days like this over the centuries, but think of all the changes that it has known inside! The general buffeting of the winds of history still leaves room for local squalls and lightning strikes. All Saints has known these, but for now a blessed calm reigns here. Long may it remain so.

 

Simon Knott, June 2019

 

www.suffolkchurches.co.uk/gazeley.htm

Fonte dell'immagine: Il Lampo da Levante

 

Condizioni d'Uso: Avviso legale e condizioni per l’uso

  

Liberarsi dalle catene dello spirito

  

di Wu Wen, provincia dell’Henan

  

Ero una persona debole con un carattere sensibile. Prima di credere in Dio, mi sentivo spesso abbattuta e angosciata per le cose che capitavano nella vita. C’erano molti momenti di questo tipo e avevo sempre la sensazione che la mia esistenza fosse difficile; nel mio cuore non c’erano alcuna vera gioia, alcuna vera felicità. Questo dolore era proprio come una catena capace di tenermi sempre legata strettamente, rendendomi davvero infelice. Fu soltanto dopo aver creduto in Dio Onnipotente che scoprii nelle Sue parole la causa del problema e me ne liberai a poco a poco.

 

Lessi quanto segue nelle parole di Dio Onnipotente: “Poiché gli esseri umani amano troppo sé stessi, l’intera loro vita è travagliata e vana, […]” (Capitolo 46 di “Parole di Dio all’intero universo” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). In quell’istante compresi la ragione della mia sofferenza; dipendeva dal fatto che ero troppo innamorata di me stessa, che vivevo sempre solo per me stessa. Di frequente mi sentivo angosciata e addolorata per qualche parola sgradevole o per l’occhiata obliqua di un’altra persona. Quando ricevevo il trattamento e la potatura, mi sentivo triste e arrabbiata, perché la mia dignità veniva ferita e avevo la sensazione di aver perso la faccia. Ero preoccupata per il mio percorso futuro nella vita. Fu solo dopo aver scavato davvero a fondo in queste mie manifestazioni che mi resi conto di come tutto ciò dipendesse dal fatto che tenevo troppo alla mia reputazione, al mio prestigio e alla mia vanità e che attribuivo troppa importanza al mio interesse personale. In seguito lessi “Sfuggi all’influenza delle tenebre e verrai guadagnato da Dio” e vidi queste parole di Dio: “Gli uomini che non sono stati affrancati, che sono sempre controllati da certe cose e incapaci di dare il loro cuore a Dio, sono uomini sotto il giogo di Satana e che vivono sotto un’aura di morte” (La Parola appare nella carne). Questo passo colpiva proprio nel segno. Non è esattamente la mia condizione? Spesso ero frenata da questioni banali e non riuscivo a liberarmene. A quanto pare, tutto ciò derivava dal fatto che ero controllata e vincolata da Satana; era tutta una sua afflizione. Continuai a leggere, e Dio diceva: “Per sfuggire all’influenza delle tenebre, devi per prima cosa essere fedele a Dio e anelare alla ricerca della verità – solo allora avrai una corretta condizione. Vivere nella corretta condizione è la premessa indispensabile per sfuggire all’influenza delle tenebre. Non avere la corretta condizione significa che non sei fedele a Dio e che non aneli alla ricerca della verità. Quindi sfuggire all’influenza delle tenebre è fuori discussione. Che l’uomo possa sfuggire all’influenza delle tenebre ha fondamento nelle Mie parole, e se l’uomo non riesce a praticare in conformità con le Mie parole, non sfuggirà alla schiavitù dell’influenza delle tenebre. Vivere nella corretta condizione significa vivere sotto la guida delle parole di Dio, vivere nella condizione di essere fedeli a Dio, vivere nella condizione di ricercare la verità, vivere nella realtà di spendersi sinceramente per Dio, vivere nella condizione di amare sinceramente Dio. Coloro che vivono in queste condizioni e dentro questa realtà si trasformeranno gradualmente man mano che entrano più profondamente nella verità, e si trasformeranno con l’approfondirsi dell’opera, finché, alla fine, saranno certamente guadagnati da Dio e giungeranno ad amarLo sinceramente” (La Parola appare nella carne). Dopo aver letto questo passo, sentii il mio cuore allietarsi. Ero soggetta così spesso ai vincoli della fama, del prestigio e del beneficio della carne perché ero lontana da Dio, mancavo delle Sue parole e non comprendevo la verità, vivendo invece sotto il dominio di Satana. Costui usava tutte queste cose, questi veleni satanici, per affliggermi, così che mi impantanassi nel beneficio della carne e restassi aggrovigliata in desideri egoistici di ogni tipo. Nonostante la mia fede, continuavo ad affannarmi e a correre qua e là per amore della carne. Non avevo la determinazione necessaria per cercare, per andare in cerca della verità. Non ero devota a Dio. Se non avessi cambiato rotta, avrei continuato a vivere sotto il dominio di Satana e mi sarei allontanata sempre di più da Dio. Alla fine Satana mi avrebbe inghiottita intera. Ringraziai per la rivelazione delle parole di Dio; vidi la mia condizione pericolosa e trovai anche una strada per liberarmi dall’influsso delle tenebre: avere un cuore pronto a cercare la verità, affidarsi veramente a Dio e alzare lo sguardo a Lui nei momenti di difficoltà, leggere più spesso le Sue parole, cercare i principi della pratica nelle Sue parole ed esserGli sempre leale. Quando l’umanità ottiene l’opera dello Spirito Santo, la sua corruzione può subire una trasformazione insieme con l’ingresso nella verità. Questa è la via dell’opera dello Spirito Santo. Tuttavia avevo ignorato questo aspetto, limitandomi a cercare passivamente di trattare la mia indole corrotta con la mia perseveranza e affidandomi a metodi umani, senza contare attivamente sulle parole di Dio e sull’opera dello Spirito Santo per purificare e cambiare me stessa. Non c’era da stupirsi che non avessi risolto questa condizione alla radice. Proprio come dicono le parole di Dio: “Più le persone stanno di fronte a Dio e più vengono rese perfette da Lui. Questo è il modo in cui lo Spirito Santo opera. Se non lo capisci, per te sarà impossibile immetterti sulla giusta via, e venire perfezionato da Dio sarà fuori questione. […] può contare solo sul proprio estenuante operare e in nessuna misura sull’opera di Dio. Non sarebbe un’esperienza sbagliata?” (“L’esperienza” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). Dopo averlo capito, iniziai a praticare consapevolmente secondo questo percorso. Quando leggo le parole di Dio, mi sforzo anche di trattare i veleni satanici della fama, del prestigio e del beneficio della carne. Quando incappo in una difficoltà, metto consapevolmente in pratica la verità e abbandono le mie motivazioni e i miei punti di vista sbagliati. Quando mi viene qualche idea sbagliata, mi affretto a pregare Dio e a cercare la verità così da essere in grado di vivere nella giusta condizione. Benché le mie azioni non rispondessero ai requisiti e ai criteri delle parole di Dio, ho percepito il sollievo e la libertà di vivere nella luce e ho ricevuto l’opera dello Spirito Santo. Non solo sono riuscita a vedere la mia corruzione e le mie mancanze, mi sono sentita anche determinata a voler cambiare presto e motivata a praticare la verità. È mutato anche il mio atteggiamento; non sono più malinconica, depressa e senza vita, bensì ci sono vitalità e vigore nel mio cuore. Sono anche diventata più allegra e sono molto felice di vivere nella Chiesa!

 

So che questo aspetto della corruzione dentro di me è troppo profondo e che non è possibile liberarsi totalmente dall’influsso di Satana mettendo in pratica queste cose solo qualche volta. Tuttavia Dio mi ha permesso di assaggiare la dolcezza della liberazione dall’influsso delle tenebre, vivendo nella luce, il che mi ha dato motivazione e speranza nella mia ricerca. Credo che se continuerò a perseverare nella collaborazione con Dio e a seguire la strada che Egli ha indicato, a cercare la verità in tutte le cose e a vivere secondo le Sue parole, mi sbarazzerò delle catene dello spirito, mi libererò dall’influsso delle tenebre e sarò guadagnata da Dio.

  

it.easternlightning.org/shaking-off-shackles-of-spirit.html

 

All Saints, Gazeley, Suffolk.

 

There was never any doubt I would go to Rob's funeral. Rob was born just two weeks before me, and in our many meetings, we found we had so much in common.

 

A drive to Ipswich should be something like only two and a half hours, but with the Dartford Crossing that could balloon to four or more.

 

My choice was to leave early, soon after Jools left for work, or wait to near nine once rush hour was over. If I was up early, I'd leave early, I said.

 

Which is what happened.

 

So, after coffee and Jools leaving, I loaded my camera stuff in the car, not bothering to program in a destination, as I knew the route to Suffolk so well.

 

Checking the internet I found the M2 was closed, so that meant taking the M20, which I like as it runs beside HS2, although over the years, vegetation growth now hides most of it, and with Eurostar cutting services due to Brexit, you're lucky to see a train on the line now.

 

I had a phone loaded with podcasts, so time flew by, even if travelling through the endless roadworks at 50mph seemed to take forever.

 

Dartford was jammed. But we inched forward, until as the bridge came in sight, traffic moved smoothly, and I followed the traffic down into the east bore of the tunnel.

 

Another glorious morning for travel, the sun shone from a clear blue sky, even if traffic was heavy, but I had time, so not pressing on like I usually do, making the drive a pleasant one.

 

Up through Essex, where most other traffic turned off at Stanstead, then up to the A11 junction, with it being not yet nine, I had several hours to fill before the ceremony.

 

I stopped at Cambridge services for breakfast, then programmed the first church in: Gazeley, which is just in Suffolk on the border with Cambridgeshire.

 

I took the next junction off, took two further turnings brought be to the village, which is divided by one of the widest village streets I have ever seen.

 

It was five past nine: would the church be open?

 

I parked on the opposite side of the road, grabbed my bag and camera, limped over, passing a warden putting new notices in the parish notice board. We exchange good mornings, and I walk to the porch.

 

The inner door was unlocked, and the heavy door swung after turning the metal ring handle.

 

I had made a list of four churches from Simon's list of the top 60 Suffolk churches, picking those on or near my route to Ipswich and which piqued my interest.

 

Here, it was the reset mediaeval glass.

 

Needless to say, I had the church to myself, the centuries hanging heavy inside as sunlight flooded in filling the Chancel with warm golden light.

 

Windows had several devotional dials carved in the surrounding stone, and a huge and "stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast" which caught my eye.

 

A display in the Chancel was of the decoration of the wooden roof above where panels contained carved beats, some actual and some mythical.

 

I photographed them all.

 

----------------------------------------------------

 

All Saints is a large, remarkably good church in one of the sleepy, fat villages along the Cambridgeshire border, the sort of place you cycle through and imagine wistfully that you've won the lottery and could move there. The wide churchyard on both sides is a perfect setting for the church, which rises to heaven out of a perpendicular splendour of aisles, clerestories and battlements. The tower was complete by the 1470s when money was being left for a bell. The earlier chancel steadies the ship, anchoring it to earth quietly, although the tall east window has its spectacular moment too. And you step into a deliciously well-kept interior, full of interest.

One of the most significant medieval survivals here is not easily noticed. This is the range of 15th Century glass, which was reset by the Victorians high in the clerestory. This seems a curious thing to have done, since it defeats the purpose of a clerestory, but if they had not done so then we might have lost it. The glass matches the tracery in the north aisle windows, so that is probably where they came from. There are angels, three Saints and some shields, most of which are heraldic but two show the instruments of the passion and the Holy Trinity. I would not be surprised to learn that some of the shields are 19th century, but the figures are all original late 15th or early 16th century. The Saints are an unidentified Bishop, the hacksaw-wielding St Faith and one of my favourites, St Apollonia. She it was who was invoked by medieval people against toothache.

 

Waling from the nave up into the chancel, the space created by the clearing of clutter makes it at once mysterious and beautiful. Above, the early 16th century waggon roof is Suffolk's best of its kind. Mortlock points out the little angels bearing scrolls, the wheat ears and the vine sprays, and the surviving traces of colour. The low side window on the south side still has its hinges, for here it was that updraught to the rood would have sent the candles flickering in the mystical church of the 14th century. On the south side of the sanctuary is an exquisitely carved arched recess, that doesn't appear to have ever had a door, and may have been a very rare purpose-built Easter sepulchre at the time of the 1330s rebuilding. Opposite is a huge and stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast. It is one of the most significant Decorated moments in Suffolk.

 

On the floor of the chancel there is a tiny, perfect chalice brass, one of only two surviving in Suffolk. The other is at Rendham. Not far away is the indent of another chalice brass - or perhaps it was for the same one, and the brass has been moved for some reason. There are two chalice indents at Westhall, but nowhere else in Suffolk. Chalice brasses were popular memorials for Priests in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and thus were fair game for reformers. Heigham memorials of the late 16th century are on the walls. Back in the south aisle there is a splendid tombchest in Purbeck marble. It has lost its brasses, but the indents show us where they were, as do other indents in the aisle floors. Some heraldic brass shields survive, and show that Heighams were buried here. Brass inscriptions survive in the nave and the chancel, dating from the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

 

The 14th century font is a good example of the tracery pattern series that appeared in the decades before the Black Death. They may have been intended to spread ideas at that time of great artistic and intellectual flowering before it was so cruelly snatched away. The cover is 17th Century. At this end of the nave are two good ranges of medieval benches, one, rare in East Anglia, is a group of 14th Century benches with pierced tracery backs. Some of them appear to spell out words, and Mortlock thought one might say Salaman Sayet. The block of benches to the north appears to be 15th Century or possibly early 16th Century. Further north, the early 17th Century benches are simpler, even cruder, and were likely the work of the village carpenter.

 

All rather lovely then. And yet, it hasn't always been that way. All Saints at Gazeley, near Newmarket, was the first church that I visited after an international team of scientists conclusively proved that God did not exist began the first page for this church that I wrote in 2003, in a satirical mood after finding the church locked and at a very low ebb. At a time when congregations were generally falling, I'd been thinking about the future of medieval churches beyond a time when they would have people to use them in the traditional way. I wondered if the buildings might find new uses, or could adapt themselves to changing patterns and emphases in Christianity, or even changing spiritual needs of their parishes. Even if science could somehow prove that God did not exist, I suggested, there were parishes which would rise to the challenge and reinvent themselves, as churches have always done over the two millennia of Christianity. Coming to Gazeley I felt that here was a church which felt as if it had been abandoned. And yet, it seemed to me a church of such significance, such historical and spiritual importance, that its loss would be a disaster. If it had been clean, tidy and open at the time he was visiting, Simon Jenkins England's Thousand Best Churches would not have been able to resist it. Should the survival of such a treasure store depend upon the existence of God or the continued practice of the Christian faith? Or might there be other reasons to keep this extraordinary building in something like its present integrity?

 

In the first decade of the 21st Century, Gazeley church went on a tremendous journey, from being moribund to being the wonderful church you can visit today. If you want to read the slightly adapted 2006 entry for Gazeley, recounting this journey, you can do so here. Coming back here today always fills me with optimism for what can be achieved. On one occasion I mentioned my experiences of Gazeley church to a Catholic Priest friend of mine, and he said he hoped I knew I'd seen the power of the Holy Spirit at work. And perhaps that is so. Certainly, the energy and imagination of the people here have been fired by something. On that occasion I had wanted to find someone to ask about it, to find out how things stood now. But there was no one, and so the building spoke for them.

 

Back outside in the graveyard, the dog daisies clustered and waved their sun-kissed faces in the light breeze. The ancient building must have known many late-May days like this over the centuries, but think of all the changes that it has known inside! The general buffeting of the winds of history still leaves room for local squalls and lightning strikes. All Saints has known these, but for now a blessed calm reigns here. Long may it remain so.

 

Simon Knott, June 2019

 

www.suffolkchurches.co.uk/gazeley.htm

Lincoln Cathedral (in full The Cathedral Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Lincoln, or sometimes St. Mary's Cathedral) is a cathedral located in Lincoln in England and seat of the Bishop of Lincoln in the Church of England. Building commenced in 1088 and continued in several phases throughout the medieval period. It was reputedly the tallest building in the world for 238 years (1311–1549).[1][2][3] The central spire collapsed in 1549 and was not rebuilt. The cathedral is the third largest in Britain (in floor space) after St Paul's and York Minster, being 484 by 271 feet (148 by 83 m). It is highly regarded by architectural scholars; the eminent Victorian writer John Ruskin declared: "I have always held... that the cathedral of Lincoln is out and out the most precious piece of architecture in the British Isles and roughly speaking worth any two other cathedrals we have."

 

Remigius de Fécamp, the first Bishop of Lincoln, moved the episcopal seat (cathedra) there "some time between 1072 and 1092"[4] About this, James Essex writes that "Remigius ... laid the foundations of his Cathedral in 1088" and "it is probable that he, being a Norman, employed Norman masons to superintend the building ... though he could not complete the whole before his death."[5] Before that, writes B. Winkles, "It is well known that Remigius appropriated the parish church of St Mary Magdalene in Lincoln, although it is not known what use he made of it

 

Up until then St. Mary's Church in Stow was considered to be the "mother church"[7] of Lincolnshire[8] (although it was not a cathedral, because the seat of the diocese was at Dorchester Abbey in Dorchester-on-Thames, Oxfordshire). However, Lincoln was more central to a diocese that stretched from the Thames to the Humber.

 

Bishop Remigius built the first Lincoln Cathedral on the present site, finishing it in 1092 and then dying on 9 May of that year,[9] two days before it was consecrated. In 1141, the timber roofing was destroyed in a fire. Bishop Alexander rebuilt and expanded the cathedral, but it was mostly destroyed by an earthquake about forty years later, in 1185 (dated by the BGS as occurring 15 April 1185).[6][10] The earthquake was one of the largest felt in the UK: it has an estimated magnitude of over 5. The damage to the cathedral is thought to have been very extensive: the Cathedral is described as having "split from top to bottom"; in the current building, only the lower part of the west end and of its two attached towers remain of the pre-earthquake cathedral.[10] Some (Kidson, 1986; Woo, 1991) have suggested that the damage to Lincoln Cathedral was probably exaggerated by poor construction or design; with the actual collapse most probably caused by a vault collapse.[10]

 

After the earthquake, a new bishop was appointed. He was Hugh de Burgundy of Avalon, France, who became known as St Hugh of Lincoln. He began a massive rebuilding and expansion programme. Rebuilding began with the choir (St Hugh's Choir) and the eastern transepts between 1192 and 1210.[11] The central nave was then built in the Early English Gothic style. Lincoln Cathedral soon followed other architectural advances of the time – pointed arches, flying buttresses and ribbed vaulting were added to the cathedral. This allowed support for incorporating larger windows. There are thirteen bells in the south-west tower, two in the north-west tower, and five in the central tower (including Great Tom). Accompanying the cathedral's large bell, Great Tom of Lincoln, is a quarter-hour striking clock. The clock was installed in the early 19th century.[12] The two large stained glass rose windows, the matching Dean's Eye and Bishop's Eye, were added to the cathedral during the late Middle Ages. The former, the Dean's Eye in the north transept dates from the 1192 rebuild begun by St Hugh, finally being completed in 1235. The latter, the Bishop's eye, in the south transept was reconstructed a hundred years later in 1330.[13] A contemporary record, “The Metrical Life of St Hugh”, refers to the meaning of these two windows (one on the dark, north, side and the other on the light, south, side of the building):

 

"For north represents the devil, and south the Holy Spirit and it is in these directions that the two eyes look. The bishop faces the south in order to invite in and the dean the north in order to shun; the one takes care to be saved, the other takes care not to perish. With these Eyes the cathedral’s face is on watch for the candelabra of Heaven and the darkness of Lethe (oblivion)."

 

After the additions of the Dean's eye and other major Gothic additions it is believed some mistakes in the support of the tower occurred, for in 1237 the main tower collapsed. A new tower was soon started and in 1255 the Cathedral petitioned Henry III to allow them to take down part of the town wall to enlarge and expand the Cathedral, including the rebuilding of the central tower and spire. They replaced the small rounded chapels (built at the time of St Hugh) with a larger east end to the cathedral. This was to handle the increasing number of pilgrims to the Cathedral, who came to worship at the shrine of Hugh of Lincoln.

 

In 1290 Eleanor of Castile died and King Edward I of England decided to honour her, his Queen Consort, with an elegant funeral procession. After her body had been embalmed, which in the 13th century involved evisceration, Eleanor's viscera were buried in Lincoln cathedral and Edward placed a duplicate of the Westminster Abbey tomb there. The Lincoln tomb's original stone chest survives; its effigy was destroyed in the 17th century and replaced with a 19th-century copy. On the outside of Lincoln Cathedral are two prominent statues often identified as Edward and Eleanor, but these images were heavily restored in the 19th century and they were probably not originally intended to depict the couple.

 

Between 1307 and 1311 the central tower was raised to its present height of 271 feet (83 m). The western towers and front of the cathedral were also improved and heightened. At this time, a tall lead-encased wooden spire topped the central tower but was blown down in a storm in 1549. With its spire, the tower reputedly reached a height of 525 feet (160 m) (which would have made it the world's tallest structure, surpassing the Great Pyramid of Giza, which held the record for almost 4,000 years). Although there is dissent,[1] this height is agreed by most sources.[14][15][16][17][18] Other additions to the cathedral at this time included its elaborate carved screen and the 14th-century misericords, as was the Angel Choir. For a large part of the length of the cathedral, the walls have arches in relief with a second layer in front to give the illusion of a passageway along the wall. However the illusion does not work, as the stonemason, copying techniques from France, did not make the arches the correct length needed for the illusion to be effective.

 

In 1398 John of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford founded a chantry in the cathedral to pray for the welfare of their souls. In the 15th century the building of the cathedral turned to chantry or memorial chapels. The chapels next to the Angel Choir were built in the Perpendicular style, with an emphasis on strong vertical lines, which survive today in the window tracery and wall panelling.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_Cathedral

Galileo images circa 1950: Photo by B Newman/Getty Images

 

The above picture was taken at a Catholic service on Ellis Island in 1950. Researchers have taken two methods to try and understand what religion is. One is that religion is a set of beliefs and the other views religion as something that a person belongs to. A third aspect that researchers have stated regarding religion is behaving. When they say behaving they mean that you participate in both public and private activities that are considered to have some degree of religious significance i.e. going to mass or praying. Two of the main religions the immigrants practiced were Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. In Roman Catholicism the doctrines are similar to those of Protestant and Orthodox Churches meaning they all believe in “God as Trinity, creation, redemption, the person and work of Jesus Christ and the place of the Holy Spirit” the only difference is the role of the Church and its sacramental theology. The traditional practices such as the Stations of the Cross, the Virgin Mary and all the saints are still important to being a devout Catholic. Protestantism is the faith and practice that came out of the Reformation movement in the 16th century. The chief original branches of Protestantism are Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism. The characteristics that make Protestantism unique are accepting that the Bible is the only source of truth and the doctrine of justification by faith only. The spirituality and worship of the Protestants put emphasis on “personal morality” and preaching and listening to sermons. The reason that there are so many sects is because there is an importance placed on the individual to interpret the scriptures for themselves.

 

Fraser, James W. Between Church and State. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion

   

Branches of the Vine

Young Catholics complete sacraments of initiation

 

By Andrew Junker | May 21, 2009 | The Catholic Sun

 

CAREFREE — They were lined up down the main aisle of Our Lady of Joy’s church in starched shirts, white dresses and uncomfortable dress shoes.

 

And they were nervous.

 

Well, “nervous and excited,” explained Jenna Mateo, one of the 40 or so third-graders who made their first Communion and were confirmed by Bishop Thomas J. Olmsted May 10 at the north Valley parish.

 

Maci McMeel — who chose Christina as her confirmation name — agreed with Mateo.

 

“I was kind of nervous because there were a lot of people watching us,” she said. McMeel said she had thought a lot about what it would be like to receive the Eucharist, and that making her first Communion was very “exciting.”

 

Across the Diocese of Phoenix, confirmation and first Communion season is in full bloom. Hundreds of children are receiving the sacraments either from the hands of the bishop or one of his appointed vicars or deans.

 

Jill Pavolovsky prepared the young confirmandi at Our Lady of Joy. The sacrament preparation is worked into the regular religious education classes at the parish, which have been focused on preparing for confirmation and first Communion for about a year now.

 

“The restored order of the sacraments helps the children receive the Blessed Sacrament more worthily and gives them the graces to make better choices in their lives,” said Pavlovsky, who is known to her students simply as “Miss Jill.”

 

Linking confirmation to baptism as one of the sacraments of initiation, as well as teaching the children about Pentecost and the gifts and fruits of the Holy Spirit “helps them understand how confirmation will help them live out, spread and defend the faith,” she said, “as a third-grader and hopefully beyond.”

 

In his homily, Bishop Olmsted told the children about their new responsibilities as fully initiated members of the Church and gave them advice on how to remain close to Christ.

 

The Gospel reading included Jesus telling His disciples, “I am the vine, you are the branches. Whoever remains in Me and I in him will bear much fruit, because without Me you can do nothing.”

 

“These words of Jesus help us see why holy Communion and confirmation are such great blessings from God,” Bishop Olmsted said. “The sacraments help us stay in communion with Christ, and that’s the only way to have real joy.”

 

More: www.catholicsun.org

 

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Notice the Israelites would not submit to God’s righteousness, and sought to establish their own. Sound familiar? Now, we gentiles have fallen prey to that same religious trap, hoping to establish our own “rightness” before a perfect God. Anything short of absolute perfection is total failure. God commanded, “Thou shalt not” and we did, just like everybody else that has ever lived, "we FAILED".

 

Isn’t this just like mankind, in all generations. We’ve got this Lord, we don’t need your help, we can do this. Rejecting what GOD has done on our behaves, and trying desperately to establish our own righteousness through good works in the energy of our own flesh.

 

What an exercise in futility. God has told us in Isaiah 64:6 “All of us have become like one who is unclean, and OUR righteous acts are like filthy rags; we ALL shrivel up like a leaf, and like the wind our sins sweep us away.” and As it is written: “There is NO ONE righteous, NO not even one; 11 there is no one who understands, no one who seeks God, 12 ALL have turned away, they have together become worthless, there is no one who does good, no not even one” (Romans 3:10-12).

 

Yet we are willing to sit in a pew once or twice a week and allow some religious guru from some denominational seminary or other, try to convince us we can do this, and if you can’t you just need a little help. Just put your sacrificial gift in the offering plate and we will give you the tools you need to be your own God. No we can not, for if we could, God would have stayed in heaven and not given himself over to wicked men to be tortured and killed to save us from ourselves…

 

What GOD wants us to know is, his SON, JESUS CHRIST, did something we could never do. HE lived a perfect life before God, and earned the right to become a sacrifice for us ALL. HE took OUR sins upon himself and died the death we deserved to die, "in our place". Paying the penalty of the wages of sin being that of death for you and I. Because according to scripture, “the wages of sin is death.” ) Romans 6:23)

 

So rather than praising God for the fact he did this for us, because we couldn’t, we chose to ignore it, and go on everyday like Christ did NOTHING.

 

And of course while we continue to try and make ourselves righteous before God through our self-effort, we add a little extra to the mix by hedging our bets and asking God to forgive us of our sins ever few minutes, just incase we missed something. Well we have missed something and that something is the blood sacrifice of God himself that suffered and died in our place.

 

Can we not get it through our hard heads that this isn’t about us, it’s ALL about JESUS and NONE of ourselves. Jesus did something, and no we don’t ask him to forgive us every time we remember to do so, because we are told that make’s him happy. No, pretending like it isn’t finished, and the sin issue is still up for grabs isn’t pleasing God. You are in fact proving you are an unbeliever, and an enemy of the cross of Christ and counting as an unholy thing the blood of the covenant that sanctified you. Does that really sound pleasing to you?

 

What religious types like to call, “The Lord’s Prayer”, is not and never was. His disciples ask him to teach “THEM” how to pray. Ask yourself when that occurred, was that before or after the cross? See, because after the cross ALL of that changed. The death of Jesus actually brought about CHANGE, BEHOLD ALL THINGS HAVE BECOME NEW!

 

Are you picking up on that fact? You don’t keep asking for what in Christ Jesus you’ve already been given! Because if you do, you are now insulting the Spirit of Grace. Have you got that?

 

So it’s like this, “God gave his life for you, so he could give his life to you, so he could live his LIFE in and through YOU.” Let’s take a look at the rest of that scripture in Romans. “The wages of sin is death, but the GIFT OF GOD is eternal LIFE in Christ Jesus our Lord” (Romans 6:23)

 

Salvation is all about LIFE, not whether or not you’ve been good little boys and girls or not, because you haven’t. God has turned away his wrath, by the BLOOD of JESUS, satisfying his verdict of death forever on your account. This LIFE you received through FAITH IN JESUS, is eternal in the heavens, you can’t lose it, if you screw up again in and hour or so, because you WILL.

 

Jesus has taken away any fear you had because you are a human, and screwing up is what we humans do best. So we say, thanks be to JESUS who is "GOD"! 1“Therefore, there is now NO condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus, 2 because through Christ Jesus the law of the spirit of LIFE set me free from the law of sin and death.” (Romans 8:1-2)

 

It’s time we started THANKING and PRAISING JESUS for what HE ALONE could do, rather than actually trying to go into competition with him in our own self-righteous quest. We’ve been given the very righteousness of JESUS, we now stand by FAITH in Jesus COMPLETED work for us on the cross, his burial and his resurrected life on the third day! Spotless and free of accusation of any kind. I don’t care what you’ve done, whatever that was, it’s been forgiven you through the saving blood of Jesus himself. God looks at you, and calls you his child, and a friend of God if you stand firm in your faith, that Jesus paid it all for you. Believe it, stop doubting. Faith IN JESUS is the ONLY thing that pleases God.

 

Are you a believer, or only one that provides lip service like so many today that belong to clubs all over the world being called churches? God only has ONE CHURCH my friends and you are placed in that Church which is the Body of Christ at the exact moment you truly believe, Jesus did it all, the price for your salvation has been paid and you’ve been bought, God himself paid it with his very own blood. Because of his perfect LOVE for YOU. Is that good news or what? Share the good news with somebody you care about.

 

Keep the Faith, for God has given you everything you need for LIFE and Godliness thought your knowledge of Jesus Christ the Lord!

  

JESUS ❤️ SAVES

 

Grace and Peace to you from God our Father in the Lord Jesus Christ, FOREVER and EVER.

 

10 The thief comes only to STEAL and KILL and DESTROY; I have come that they may have LIFE, and have it to the FULL. (John 10:10)

 

Jesus came to bring spiritual LIFE to the spiritually dead and set the captives FREE! FREE from RELIGION, ERROR and outright LIES, so they might serve THE LIVING GOD! In SPIRIT and in TRUTH!

 

For the best Biblical teaching in the last 2 centuries! Please listen to and down load these FREE audio files that were created with YOU in mind. It's ALL FREE, if you like it, please share it with others. ❤️

 

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Zetland Lifeboat Museum, Redcar

 

"Grangemouth in Scotland was founded in 1768 by Sir Lawrence Dundas as a result of the construction of the Forth and Clyde Canal. His grandson, also Lawrence, was created Earl of Zetland on the occasion of Queen Victoria's coronation in 1838 and it was his son Thomas, the 2nd Earl, who had provided the money for the construction of the town's original place of worship and who, at the time of The Great Disruption, had sided with the Free Church."

 

www.bygoneboozers.co.uk/post/back-on-dry-land?postId=6c14...

 

Redcar & Saltburn News 9th May 1873.

 

DEATH OF THE EARL OF ZETLAND

 

We deeply regret to announce the death of the Earl of Zetland, which took place on Tuesday, a little before 11 a.m., at Aske Hall, Richmond.

 

His Lordship has been in a somewhat precarious condition of health for the last few years from the result of an accident, by which he was all but disabled from walking. Notwithstanding this his Lordship’s general health was good and his mind unclouded to the last. Last week, preparations were being made for his Lordship’s usual journey to London, and on Sunday last the Earl was in his usual health and spirits. On Monday morning, however, he awoke in a very exhausted condition, and Dr. Carter, of Richmond, was summonsed to Aske, and Sir William Gull was telegraphed for. When the latter arrived about midnight, he did not consider his patient without hope, and hopes were raised which were speedily disappointed. About 10 a.m. on Tuesday, matters became worse, and at 10.40, life became extinct. The deceased Earl was born in 1795, and is consequently 78 years of age. His Lordship’s father was created Earl of Zetland in 1838. The deceased Earl, married in 1823, Sophia Jane, daughter of Sir Hedworth Williamson, Bart, who died in 1865, by whom he had no issue. The title and estates devolve upon Lawrence Dundas, Esq., now Earl of Zetland, was born in 1844, and married in 1871, to Lady Lilian Lumley, third daughter of the Earl and Countess of Scarborough. The late Earl was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took his M.A. degree in 1814, the year before the battle of Waterloo. His Lordship was created a Knight of the Garter last year. Up to a recent date he was Lord Lieutenant and Custos Rotulorum of the North Riding, which offices he resigned and was succeeded by the Marquis of Ripon. He was Grand Master of the Freemasons of England for more than a quarter of a century, succeeding the Duke of Sussex in 1843, and, resigning office in 1869 was succeeded by the Marquis of Ripon.

 

The Noble Earl was a liberal in politics, and a member of the Church of England; he was a great patron of education and of the industries on his large estates. The schools at Redcar, and more recently the gift of ground for a cemetery, and £1000 towards the necessary buildings, are examples in Redcar of his Lordship’s magnificence. The new church at Marske, though commenced by subscription, was built chiefly at Lord Zetland’s expense, at a cost of £6000; and on all parts of his property judicious and liberal patronage of education, hospitals, and institutions tending to benefit of the community, marked by his Lordship’s career.

 

Lord Zetland was consistent friend and patron of the turf, being fond of horses he bred and ran them for the love of sport, and his usual conscientious and honourable spirit was manifested in this as in all other matters.

 

The Noble Earl’s remains will be interred in the family Vault at Marske, on Monday next, at 1 p.m. We understand that a number of the tradesmen of Redcar have signified their intention of closing their places of business from 11 till 2 on that day as a mark of respect to the memory of the deceased, and we hope this will be general."

  

The Redcar and Saltburn-by-the-Sea Gazette 27th June 1873

 

THE ZETLAND FAMILY

 

"A notification, dated Whitehall 14th June, appears in the London Gazette, to the effect that Her Majesty has been pleased to ordain and declare that John Charles Dundas, Esq., M.P. for Richmond, and Her Majesty’s Lieutenant of the shires of Orkney and Zetland, William Fitzwilliam James Dundas., Esq. Cospatrick Thomas Dundas, Esq., Harriet Emily Dundas, Mary Dundas, Margaret Matilda Dundas, Charlotte Jane Dundas, Laura Octavia Dundas, and Alice Dundas, spinsters, the brothers and sisters of Lawrence, now Earl of Zetland, shall henceforth have, hold, and enjoy the same title, place, pre-eminence, and presedebce, as if their late father, John Charles Dundas, has survived his elder brother Thomas, second Earl of Zetland, and had thereby succeeded to the title and dignity of Earl of Zetland. This royal order and declaration is to be recorded in Her Majesty’s College of Arms."

 

The Cleveland Standard 7th January 1933, and the Yorkshire Archaeological Society of which he was a member.

 

"The Dowager Marchioness of Zetland by Hugh W. Cook. Redcar

 

When I called at Marske Hall, that stately old Jacobean mansion, a few days ago, I was most cordially invited by the kind hearted Dowager Marchioness of Zetland, and after a very homely talk with her I was conducted around the hall by her lady ship, whose knowledge of the history of the mansion is most remarkable and accurate.

The dowager lady pointed out to me the most interesting and historical parts of Marske Hall, which since the death of her husband (the late Marquis of Zetland) about four years ago, has been her permanent home, and she is dearly loved and respected by all sections of the community.

The dowager lady married on August 3, 1871, and her son and heir, the present Marquis of Zetland resides at Aske Hall, near Richmond when he is residence in the North. This was also the former home of the dowager lady, and is one of the oldest mansions in England. It dates back to the Saxon period, and is mentioned in Doomsday Book as “Asse.”

Her ladyship is keenly interested in ambulance work and is a Dame Grace of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. "Both the Order of St John and the British Red Cross Society have done some very good work and are still doing it," remarked Lady Zetland.

The late Lord Zetland (and the present Lord) always had a great interest in Redcar and I am sure that the Dowager Marchioness can claim to have an almost equal interest in Coatham, as she is the direct lineal descendant of the lords Lumley, who for many generations in the middle ages were lords of the manor of Kirkleatham. They owned most of the property in Kirkleatham and Coatham.

The lordship of these places and the property came into the Lumley family in 1374 on the death of Thomas Thwenge, clerk to the Holy Orders, and Rector of Kirkleatham.

This noble family, of which the Earl of Scarborough of Sandown Park and Lumley Castle, the Dowager lady’s brother – is also a member, is one of the oldest families in England and they settled around the North Country district long before the Norman Conquest.

Lady Zetland is referring to the ancient pedigree of her family laughingly remarked, “I think history goes back nearly to the days of Adam.”

Her Ladyship is the third daughter of Richard, ninth earl of Scarborough, and is well-known all around Aske, Richmond, Marske and Redcar for her charitable and kindly deeds, as she has always given to the poor and needy.

 

A Fairy Godmother

 

She is a real "Fairy Godmother" to the people of Marske and always happy when amongst them.

Place of worship, concerts, hospitals, nursing homes, and everything organised for the poor and needy always cordially supported by the kindly heart of the dowager lady. "We must do what we can for the most unfortunate ones, and there are many in Marske alone just now," stated Lady Zetland to me.

Her ladyship paid a high comment to Redcar and the wonderful enterprises carried out there during the last few years, which is further evidence of the interest she takes in the welfare and prosperity of the North Yorkshire Borough.

The noble family of Dundas, into which the dowager lady married into in 1871, is a very old and historic Scottish family, but the Marske and Redcar property passed by purchase into the hands of the family about 150 years ago.

Upleatham Hall was the former Cleveland seat of the family, but it was demolished over 30 years ago, and only a few traces of this once commodious mansion now remain. After its demolition The Marquis of Zetland took over Marske Hall as the Cleveland seat and here house parties were usually entertained by the late Marquis and the Marchioness for Redcar and Stockton races and grouse shooting.

 

A Delightful Home

 

Marske Hall the delightful old-world mansion was built about 1650 by Sir William Pennyman Bart.

It is a neat commodious mansion, and on the front I notice are two shields, one bearing the arms of Pennyman and Atherton the other the arms of Pennyman viz., a chevron, between three arrow heads.

On Sir William Pennyman dying without issue the matter came to the Lowthers, who sold it to the Dundas family, ancestors of the Marquis of Zetland.

Marske Hall, however is not on the original site, as a mansion at one period stood in a field just south of Marske station, where the broken ground still testifies to the buried foundations.

An assignment of the dowager of Dame Joan Fauconberge, dated October 26, 1408, mentions this old hall and through this deed we catch a glimpse of the surroundings of the older hall.

 

The Dowager Lady Zetland has just celebrated her 81st birthday, but in spite of this she bears her years very lightly, and she assures me she enjoys very good health and keeps fairly active.

On the conclusion of my visit, her ladyship pointed out to me the beautiful carved entrance-arch just inside the hall, which is a most exquisite piece of workmanship, and still bears the arms of the Pennymans. Some very fine stained glass window glass was also pointed out to me, some of which came from Cromwell’s House at Loftus. To me all these were exceptionally interesting.

I sincerely trust this good kind hearted unassuming titled lady will be spared to reside many more years at the beautiful old Jacobean mansion and amongst the people who love her so well.

In her younger days the dowager lady was affectionately known as the "lovely Lady Lilian Lumley,” a title which I should say most ably befitted her.

The family consisted of two sons and two daughters, i.e. the present Earl of Zetland, the Hon. G. Dundas, the Countess Fitzwilliam, and Lady Southampton.

The Zetland coat of arms is Argent, a lion rampant gules, within a double tressure, flory, counterflory. The rest is a lion’s head affronted gules, encircled by a holly bush.

Her ladyship is an advocate of good living of good clean sport, and of all that’s best in English village life."

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama,[note 3] Shakyamuni,[note 4] or simply the Buddha, was a sage[3] on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[web 2] He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in eastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.[4][note 5]

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age.[note 6] Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement[5] common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.[4][6]

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era in India during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatshatru who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain teacher.[7] Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential sramana schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jain, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahāvīra, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by.[8][9][note 7] There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques.[10] While the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true,[11] most scholars do not consistently accept all of the details contained in traditional biographies.[12][13]

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE.[1][14] More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.[1][15][note 5] These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.[20][21][note 9]

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[23] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.[23] According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in Kapilavastu, which may either be in present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 1] He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagara.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One edict of Emperor Ashoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edict mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Mauryan era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon.[34][note 11] The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gāndhārī language on twenty-seven birch bark scrolls, and they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.[web 10]The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.[35] Of these, the Buddhacarita[36][37][38] is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE.[35] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.[39] The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.[39] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra,[40] and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the Nidānakathā is from the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoṣa.[41]

 

From canonical sources, the Jātakas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts.[42] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".[43][44][45] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:[46]

 

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.

 

The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[47] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[48] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[11]The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, present-day Nepal, to be the birthplace of the Buddha.[49][note 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note 1] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India,[32] or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal.[50] Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.[50]

 

Siddharta Gautama was born as a Kshatriya,[51][note 13] the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan",[4] whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,[53][54] and ten months later[55] Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[56] Buddha's birth anniversary holiday is called "Buddha Purnima" in Nepal and India as Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.[57] By traditional account,[which?] this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[57] Kaundinya (Pali: Kondañña), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[58]

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.[59] The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[60] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.[61]Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[62] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.[62]According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 11] after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 11]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.[web 11] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 12] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 12]

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[70] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[70][web 13] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths",[web 13] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[web 13] or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan — who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.

 

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.Dhyana and insight[edit]

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight.[82][95][84] Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[85][81][82]

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni, or simply the Buddha, was a sage on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in northeastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in a Yuga era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of the present age. Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the śramaṇa movement common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala.

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.

 

CONTENTS

HISTORICAL SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA

Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajasattu, who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara. Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential śramaṇa schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jainism, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahavira, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by. Indeed, Sariputta and Moggallāna, two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the skeptic. There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques. While the general sequence of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" is widely accepted, there is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in traditional biographies.

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE. More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death. These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE. It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch. According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilavastu, which may have been in either present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India. He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagar.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One Edict of Asoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edicts mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Gāndhārī language using the Kharosthi script on twenty-seven birch bark manuscripts and date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.

 

TRADITIONAL BIOGRAPHIES

BIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES

The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā. Of these, the Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE. The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. The Nidānakathā is from the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century by Buddhaghoṣa.

 

From canonical sources, the Jataka tales, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.

 

NATURE OF TRADITIONAL DEPICTIONS

In the earliest Buddhists texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience (sabbaññu) nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such as the Mahāvastu. In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (abhijñā). The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty five year career as a teacher.

 

Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supra-mundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma". Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist. British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure. Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.

 

BIOGRAPHY

CONCEPTION AND BIRTH

The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha. He grew up in Kapilavastu. The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India, or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal. Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.

 

Gautama was born as a Kshatriya, the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan", whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Maya (Māyādevī), Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Buddha's Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal and India as he is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great sadhu. By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kondañña, the youngest, and later to be the first arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition. The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the śramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.

 

EARLY LIFE AND MARRIAGE

Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati. By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account, she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.

 

RENUNCIATION AND ASCETIC LIFE

At the age of 29, the popular biography continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome aging, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.

 

Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. It's said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods" to prevent guards from knowing of his departure.

 

Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment.

 

He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra). With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.

 

Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha was rescued by a village girl named Sujata and she gave him some payasam (a pudding made from milk and jaggery) after which Siddhartha got back some energy. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's ploughing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhāna.

 

AWAKENING

According to the early Buddhist texts, after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way - a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata. Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment. According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths", which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states, or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) - a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons - immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.

 

FORMATION OF THE SANGHA

After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan - who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.

 

TRAVELS AND TEACHING

For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.

 

The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.

 

MAHAPARINIRVANA

According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha. Mettanando and Von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning. The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.

 

Waley suggests that Theravadin's would take suukaramaddava (the contents of the Buddha's last meal), which can translate as pig-soft, to mean soft flesh of a pig. However, he also states that pig-soft could mean "pig's soft-food", that is, after Neumann, a soft food favoured by pigs, assumed to be a truffle. He argues (also after Neumann) that as Pali Buddhism was developed in an area remote to the Buddha's death, the existence of other plants with suukara- (pig) as part of their names and that "(p)lant names tend to be local and dialectical" could easily indicate that suukaramaddava was a type of plant whose local name was unknown to those in the Pali regions. Specifically, local writers knew more about their flora than Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa who lived hundreds of years and kilometres remote in time and space from the events described. Unaware of an alternate meaning and with no Theravadin prohibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would not have questioned the Buddha eating meat and interpreted the term accordingly.

 

Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy:

 

44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds - the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!"

 

The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things (Saṅkhāra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence" (Pali: 'vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā'). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.

 

According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the coronation of Emperor Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of the Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Emperor Aśoka is 116 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE. whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.

 

At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.

 

While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, Shākyamuni, Shākyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana as Arihant, Bhagavā/Bhagavat/Bhagwān, Mahāvira, Jina/Jinendra, Sāstr, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as Tathāgata.

 

BUDDHA AND VEDAS

Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas and consequently [at least atheistic] Buddhism is generally viewed as a nāstika school (heterodox, literally "It is not so") from the perspective of orthodox Hinduism.

 

RELICS

After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided amongst 8 royal families and his disciples; centuries later they would be enshrined by King Ashoka into 84,000 stupas. Many supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers.

 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man".

 

The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive." (D, I:115)

 

"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A, I:181)

 

A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances.

 

Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D, I:142). In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").

 

Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.

 

NINE VIRTUES

Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called Buddhānusmṛti. The nine virtues are also among the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka, and include:

 

- Buddho – Awakened

- Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened

- Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.

- Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken.

- Lokavidu – Wise in the knowledge of the many worlds.

- Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.

- Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.

- Bhagavathi – The Blessed one

- Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge."

 

TEACHINGS

TRACING THE OLDEST TEACHINGS

Information of the oldest teachings may be obtained by analysis of the oldest texts. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon and other texts. The reliability of these sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute. According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.

 

According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:

 

"Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials;"

"Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"

"Cautious optimism in this respect."

 

DHYANA AND INSIGHT

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight. Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36

 

CORE TEACHINGS

According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyāna. Bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a Buddhist invention, whereas Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release [...] was by means of meditative practices." Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.

 

According to the Mahāsaccakasutta, from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to. "Liberating insight" is a later addition to this text, and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism. The mentioning of the four truths as constituting "liberating insight" introduces a logical problem, since the four truths depict a linear path of practice, the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating:

 

[T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths, but by practicing the fourth noble truth, the eightfold path, which culminates in right samadhi.

 

Although "Nibbāna" (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the common term for the desired goal of this practice, many other terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not specified.

 

According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way". In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.

 

According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or "liberating insight", in the suttas in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the four jhanas. According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight". Gotama's teachings may have been personal, "adjusted to the need of each person."

 

The three marks of existence may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.R. Norman supposes that these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and were familiar to his listeners.

 

The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanic term; but its usage may have been common to the Sramana traditions.

  

LATER DEVELOPMENTS

In time, "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition. The following teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight":

 

- The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and fear of annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this;

- The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration;

- Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process.

 

OTHER RELIGIONS

Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu. The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyya Muslims and a Manifestation of God in the Bahá'í Faith. Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.

 

The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph. The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha. Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August).

 

Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship the Buddha as a major religious teacher. His image can be found in both their Holy See and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and Confucius.

 

In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the word of God before Mani.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Today is the anniversary of the repose of Saint Nikolai of Zhicha (1880-1956). Saint Nikolai was a Serbian bishop who endured the atrocities of WWII and came to America to pasture the Serbian people and teach in the Theological Seminaries. My first encounter with Saint Nikolai happened several years ago while listening to Ancient Faith Radio. Someone was reading from the Saint’s book, Prayers by the Lake. The prayer/poem that they were reading was so beautiful and transcendent. Since then, I have found joy in many other writings by Saint Nikolai. Below is one of my favorite works in Prayers by the Lake:

 

My Lord is the One who resurrects. He resurrects the dead from morning until dusk, and from dusk until dawn.

What the morning buries, the Lord brings to life in the evening; and what the evening buries, the Lord brings to life in the morning.

What work is more fitting for the living God than to resurrect the dead into life?

Let others believe in the God who brings men to trial and judges them.

I shall cling to the God who resurrects the dead.

Let others believe in the God, who does not even draw near to the living when they call upon Him.

I shall worship the God, who holds His cupped ear even at cemeteries and listens, to hear whether anyone is crying out for resurrection or for the One who resurrects.

The gravediggers dig graves and are silent. The Lord opens graves and shouts.

A mother places her daughter in a grave, the Lord takes her out of the grave; the Lord is a better mother than the mother.

A father covers his son with soil, the Lord uncovers him. The Lord is a better father than the father.

A brother buries his brother, the Lord resurrects him. The Lord is a better brother than the brother.

The Lord has neither tears nor smiles for the dead. His whole heart belongs to the living.

The world mourns for their kindred in the cemeteries, the Lord seeks His own with a song and awakens them.

Resurrect my soul, O Lord, so that my body might also be resurrected. Dwell in my soul, and my body will become Your temple.

My neighbors ask with anxiety whether this body of ours will be resurrected. If you have denied yourself once and for all, and no longer live for yourself, then your body is already being resurrected.

If your body is a temple of the Most High God, then the One who resurrects is within you, and your resurrection is already being accomplished.

Our body changes with age, throughout our lifetime we have called many bodies our own. Which of them will be resurrected?

Perhaps none of them. But you can be certain that if you have had a body which expresses the Word of God clearly, it will be resurrected.

My Lord who resurrects, does not resurrect death, because death was never alive.

You are the One who resurrects and You are the resurrection, for You are life.

Only the seed which contains You is resurrected, and that seed which is of You.

You will only bring to life that soul which now lives by You and not by the world.

You will only preserve that body, which has begun to be filled with the Holy Spirit during this time.

That which is of the Living God in the graves, will be resurrected into life. No one can resurrect the dead except the Lord, and no one can rise from the dead except the Lord.

For He is in His holy people. Truly, He is in His living people, both in the grave and out of the grave.

 

+ St. Nikolai Velimirovich,

Prayers By The Lake, XCII

 

orthodoxwiki.org/Nikolai_Velimirovic

www.sv-luka.org/praylake/index.htm

 

Storm Lillian did her worse over Thursday night, blowing a right hoolie.

 

Winds were still strong at dawn, but nothing to give much of a thought about, so that when Jools dropped me off at the station, I went into the greasy spoon for a bacon and sausage butty and a brew. And then sat on the low wall to eat and drink, knowing I had half an hour to kill as the train had just left.

 

So I thought.

 

Storm Lillian had, in fact, brought a tree down on the line near Sittingbourne, and a train had hit it, so that al services were backed up, and I wasn't going to get to Canterbury East. But as the name suggests, there is another station in the city, though no direct trains from Dover to Canterbury West now.

 

Instead I caught a train north through Deal and Sandwich to Ramsgate, which was uneventful, if overlong due to the rambling nature of the line north of Richborough.

 

At Ramsgate, having just missed a high speed service, we waited.

 

For half an hour a Charing Cross service was "at Dumpton Park", but never arrived, so that it was the next high speed service we all piled onto.

 

A 15 minute run along the Stour Valley brought me to the city, where half the population with suitcases were waiting to get on.

 

I slipped off, but instead of going straight to the city, I turned left to the Goods Shed, an artisan market to check out whether there was guanciale.

 

They had some, and at half the price in Borough Market, so I made plans that either Jools or I would go back later to buy a hunk at only £2.60/Kg.

 

What I did notice too, was the eatery had just opened up, and were selling bubble and squeak with a variety of toppings. So I found myself ordering a second breakfast of bubble topped with chorizo and scrambled egg, along with the best coffee I have had for a long while.

 

That was better, now to face the naked city!

 

The long, dark and empty days of COVID are behind us, and although the streets were not packed, there were groups following guides, and it felt normal.

 

The reason for being here was the first ever public opening of the Corona Tower and then the chance to climb the 87 steps to the roof, for panoramic views of the city and surrounding downs.

 

Just one tour a day, with limited numbers, so I wanted to make sure my name was on the list. I got to the cathedral at five past ten, and was indeed the first name on the list, though a decision on whether the rooftop visit would go ahead depended on the winds dropping.

 

I went round the cathedral one more time, rattling of a couple of hundred shots, going down the crypt and around the Apse.

 

A short walk away is St Paul Without, which was open. So I went in to take some shots, I think I was there a couple of years back and was recognised in the guise of my Facebook avatar and name.

 

At midday, or just past, I was at the door of the Thomas Backet pub for a swifter. The landlord's two dogs made me feel very welcome.

 

The sun had got out and was warm outside, so I stayed inside for a second beer, and then they put their new house ale on, Troublesome Priest, named after the curse of King John of Thomas Becket. Its a dark best bitter, and very drinkable.

 

Three pints in, I thought I had better stop and go to meet up with Jools. The cathedral called to let me know the tour was on, so all was good.

 

I booked a table at a BBQ place for later, bought Jools a cider as she was parched, whereas I was well hydrated.

 

At quarter to three, I walked back to the cathedral, and was entertained by a choir while I waited. Their voices filled the huge space of the Nave, spinetingling stuff.

 

At half three, I met the guide at the lectern in the Quire, five others joined in to. So, after introductions, we walked to the Chapel at the very east of the Cathedral.

 

The public can look in the chapel, but have never been allowed inside, so this was a rare chance.

 

We swapped stories and news, me pointing out that the guide should really go to Nackington to see the ancient glass there, glass that gives the cathedral a good run for its money with the oldest stained glass in the country.

 

Then, time to climb to to roof of the chapel. An ancient door was unlocked, and beyond, medieval steps, unworn by many feet, so looking almost new, lead up and round.

 

Two glass doors look out onto the Quire, but are left dirty so people don't linger on the stairs to look. So, up and up, round and round, until the steps straighten up and with one last double-height step, we were out on the roof.

 

Not the very top of the cathedral: the roof of the Chancel rose to the west, and the central tower behind that, and in the distance, the two western tower just showed.

 

We look down on the city: a party in the grounds of the posh school nearby, the hustle of the streets and shops, and beyond, ground rose on all sides to the north Downs.

 

For half an hour we lingered and soaked the warm in.

 

Time ran out, so back down. With the first huge step a doosie, but once over that, just round and round, down and down until we were back in the Chancel, with the last visitors of the day looking in surprise as we emerged from the cathedral walls.

 

Jools was in the Thomas Becket, as was my colleague Peter. They were two beers up on me. Or Peter was. Jools would be driving, so she had the one cider.

 

The pub is city centre, but down a side street, so is good, but quieter than it might otherwise be. And their beer is good, which helps, and the food, if you eat there, very good indeed.

 

We talk for an hour, then walk to the smokehouse, which turned out not to be a smokehouse, but a fast food place, opposite the grand entrance to King's School. They di platters for us, and was pretty good, and not too pricey either.

 

Then back to the Thomas Becket for "one last beer", and more chatting.

 

Jools lead me to the car, as my health app ticked over 18,000 steps. I was pooped and ready to go home for a cuppa before bed.

 

The city was just waking up, as bright and beautiful young things tumbled out of cars for a night in the clubs and bars, just beginning their fun just as we were finishing up.

 

Out through Windcheap and onto the A2, a cruise in the gloaming back to Dover.

 

Needless to say, the cats were very pleased/annoyed to see us just after nine. So we fed them, fussed over them. Jools made a brew and I checked my shots, charged the battery ready for Saturday and another fine day out planned.

 

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History of the cathedral

THE ORIGIN of a Christian church on the scite of the present cathedral, is supposed to have taken place as early as the Roman empire in Britain, for the use of the antient faithful and believing soldiers of their garrison here; and that Augustine found such a one standing here, adjoining to king Ethelbert's palace, which was included in the king's gift to him.

 

This supposition is founded on the records of the priory of Christ-church, (fn. 1) concurring with the common opinion of almost all our historians, who tell us of a church in Canterbury, which Augustine found standing in the east part of the city, which he had of king Ethelbert's gift, which after his consecration at Arles, in France, he commended by special dedication to the patronage of our blessed Saviour. (fn. 2)

 

According to others, the foundations only of an old church formerly built by the believing Romans, were left here, on which Augustine erected that, which he afterwards dedicated to out Saviour; (fn. 3) and indeed it is not probable that king Ethelbert should have suffered the unsightly ruins of a Christian church, which, being a Pagan, must have been very obnoxious to him, so close to his palace, and supposing these ruins had been here, would he not have suffered them to be repaired, rather than have obliged his Christian queen to travel daily to such a distance as St. Martin's church, or St. Pancrace's chapel, for the performance of her devotions.

 

Some indeed have conjectured that the church found by St. Augustine, in the east part of the city, was that of St.Martin, truly so situated; and urge in favor of it, that there have not been at any time any remains of British or Roman bricks discovered scattered in or about this church of our Saviour, those infallible, as Mr. Somner stiles them, signs of antiquity, and so generally found in buildings, which have been erected on, or close to the spot where more antient ones have stood. But to proceed, king Ethelbert's donation to Augustine was made in the year 596, who immediately afterwards went over to France, and was consecrated a bishop at Arles, and after his return, as soon as he had sufficiently finished a church here, whether built out of ruins or anew, it matters not, he exercised his episcopal function in the dedication of it, says the register of Christ-church, to the honor of Christ our Saviour; whence it afterwards obtained the name of Christ-church. (fn. 4)

 

From the time of Augustine for the space of upwards of three hundred years, there is not found in any printed or manuscript chronicle, the least mention of the fabric of this church, so that it is probable nothing befell it worthy of being recorded; however it should be mentioned, that during that period the revenues of it were much increased, for in the leiger books of it there are registered more than fifty donations of manors, lands, &c. so large and bountiful, as became the munificence of kings and nobles to confer. (fn. 5)

 

It is supposed, especially as we find no mention made of any thing to the contrary, that the fabric of this church for two hundred years after Augustine's time, met with no considerable molestations; but afterwards, the frequent invasions of the Danes involved both the civil and ecclesiastical state of this country in continual troubles and dangers; in the confusion of which, this church appears to have run into a state of decay; for when Odo was promoted to the archbishopric, in the year 938, the roof of it was in a ruinous condition; age had impaired it, and neglect had made it extremely dangerous; the walls of it were of an uneven height, according as it had been more or less decayed, and the roof of the church seemed ready to fall down on the heads of those underneath. All this the archbishop undertook to repair, and then covered the whole church with lead; to finish which, it took three years, as Osbern tells us, in the life of Odo; (fn. 6) and further, that there was not to be found a church of so large a size, capable of containing so great a multitude of people, and thus, perhaps, it continued without any material change happening to it, till the year 1011; a dismal and fatal year to this church and city; a time of unspeakable confusion and calamities; for in the month of September that year, the Danes, after a siege of twenty days, entered this city by force, burnt the houses, made a lamentable slaughter of the inhabitants, rifled this church, and then set it on fire, insomuch, that the lead with which archbishop Odo had covered it, being melted, ran down on those who were underneath. The sull story of this calamity is given by Osbern, in the life of archbishop Odo, an abridgement of which the reader will find below. (fn. 7)

 

The church now lay in ruins, without a roof, the bare walls only standing, and in this desolate condition it remained as long as the fury of the Danes prevailed, who after they had burnt the church, carried away archbishop Alphage with them, kept him in prison seven months, and then put him to death, in the year 1012, the year after which Living, or Livingus, succeeded him as archbishop, though it was rather in his calamities than in his seat of dignity, for he too was chained up by the Danes in a loathsome dungeon for seven months, before he was set free, but he so sensibly felt the deplorable state of this country, which he foresaw was every day growing worse and worse, that by a voluntary exile, he withdrew himself out of the nation, to find some solitary retirement, where he might bewail those desolations of his country, to which he was not able to bring any relief, but by his continual prayers. (fn. 8) He just outlived this storm, returned into England, and before he died saw peace and quientness restored to this land by king Canute, who gaining to himself the sole sovereignty over the nation, made it his first business to repair the injuries which had been done to the churches and monasteries in this kingdom, by his father's and his own wars. (fn. 9)

 

As for this church, archbishop Ægelnoth, who presided over it from the year 1020 to the year 1038, began and finished the repair, or rather the rebuilding of it, assisted in it by the royal munificence of the king, (fn. 10) who in 1023 presented his crown of gold to this church, and restored to it the port of Sandwich, with its liberties. (fn. 11) Notwithstanding this, in less than forty years afterwards, when Lanfranc soon after the Norman conquest came to the see, he found this church reduced almost to nothing by fire, and dilapidations; for Eadmer says, it had been consumed by a third conflagration, prior to the year of his advancement to it, in which fire almost all the antient records of the privileges of it had perished. (fn. 12)

 

The same writer has given us a description of this old church, as it was before Lanfranc came to the see; by which we learn, that at the east end there was an altar adjoining to the wall of the church, of rough unhewn stone, cemented with mortar, erected by archbishop Odo, for a repository of the body of Wilfrid, archbishop of York, which Odo had translated from Rippon hither, giving it here the highest place; at a convenient distance from this, westward, there was another altar, dedicated to Christ our Saviour, at which divine service was daily celebrated. In this altar was inclosed the head of St. Swithin, with many other relics, which archbishop Alphage brought with him from Winchester. Passing from this altar westward, many steps led down to the choir and nave, which were both even, or upon the same level. At the bottom of the steps, there was a passage into the undercroft, under all the east part of the church. (fn. 13) At the east end of which, was an altar, in which was inclosed, according to old tradition, the head of St. Furseus. From hence by a winding passage, at the west end of it, was the tomb of St. Dunstan, (fn. 14) but separated from the undercroft by a strong stone wall; over the tomb was erected a monument, pyramid wife, and at the head of it an altar, (fn. 15) for the mattin service. Between these steps, or passage into the undercroft and the nave, was the choir, (fn. 16) which was separated from the nave by a fair and decent partition, to keep off the crowds of people that usually were in the body of the church, so that the singing of the chanters in the choir might not be disturbed. About the middle of the length of the nave, were two towers or steeples, built without the walls; one on the south, and the other on the north side. In the former was the altar of St. Gregory, where was an entrance into the church by the south door, and where law controversies and pleas concerning secular matters were exercised. (fn. 17) In the latter, or north tower, was a passage for the monks into the church, from the monastery; here were the cloysters, where the novices were instructed in their religious rules and offices, and where the monks conversed together. In this tower was the altar of St. Martin. At the west end of the church was a chapel, dedicated to the blessed Virgin Mary, to which there was an ascent by steps, and at the east end of it an altar, dedicated to her, in which was inclosed the head of St. Astroburta the Virgin; and at the western part of it was the archbishop's pontifical chair, made of large stones, compacted together with mortar; a fair piece of work, and placed at a convenient distance from the altar, close to the wall of the church. (fn. 18)

 

To return now to archbishop Lanfranc, who was sent for from Normandy in 1073, being the fourth year of the Conqueror's reign, to fill this see, a time, when a man of a noble spirit, equal to the laborious task he was to undertake, was wanting especially for this church; and that he was such, the several great works which were performed by him, were incontestable proofs, as well as of his great and generous mind. At the first sight of the ruinous condition of this church, says the historian, the archbishop was struck with astonishment, and almost despaired of seeing that and the monastery re edified; but his care and perseverance raised both in all its parts anew, and that in a novel and more magnificent kind and form of structure, than had been hardly in any place before made use of in this kingdom, which made it a precedent and pattern to succeeding structures of this kind; (fn. 19) and new monasteries and churches were built after the example of it; for it should be observed, that before the coming of the Normans most of the churches and monasteries in this kingdom were of wood; (all the monasteries in my realm, says king Edgar, in his charter to the abbey of Malmesbury, dated anno 974, to the outward sight are nothing but worm-eaten and rotten timber and boards) but after the Norman conquest, such timber fabrics grew out of use, and gave place to stone buildings raised upon arches; a form of structure introduced into general use by that nation, and in these parts surnished with stone from Caen, in Normandy. (fn. 20) After this fashion archbishop Lanfranc rebuilt the whole church from the foundation, with the palace and monastery, the wall which encompassed the court, and all the offices belonging to the monastery within the wall, finishing the whole nearly within the compass of seven years; (fn. 21) besides which, he furnished the church with ornaments and rich vestments; after which, the whole being perfected, he altered the name of it, by a dedication of it to the Holy Trinity; whereas, before it was called the church of our Saviour, or Christ-church, and from the above time it bore (as by Domesday book appears) the name of the church of the Holy Trinity; this new church being built on the same spot on which the antient one stood, though on a far different model.

 

After Lanfranc's death, archbishop Anselm succeeded in the year 1093, to the see of Canterbury, and must be esteemed a principal benefactor to this church; for though his time was perplexed with a continued series of troubles, of which both banishment and poverty made no small part, which in a great measure prevented him from bestowing that cost on his church, which he would otherwise have done, yet it was through his patronage and protection, and through his care and persuasions, that the fabric of it, begun and perfected by his predecessor, became enlarged and rose to still greater splendor. (fn. 22)

 

In order to carry this forward, upon the vacancy of the priory, he constituted Ernulph and Conrad, the first in 1104, the latter in 1108, priors of this church; to whose care, being men of generous and noble minds, and of singular skill in these matters, he, during his troubles, not only committed the management of this work, but of all his other concerns during his absence.

 

Probably archbishop Anselm, on being recalled from banishment on king Henry's accession to the throne, had pulled down that part of the church built by Lanfranc, from the great tower in the middle of it to the east end, intending to rebuild it upon a still larger and more magnificent plan; when being borne down by the king's displeasure, he intrusted prior Ernulph with the work, who raised up the building with such splendor, says Malmesbury, that the like was not to be seen in all England; (fn. 23) but the short time Ernulph continued in this office did not permit him to see his undertaking finished. (fn. 24) This was left to his successor Conrad, who, as the obituary of Christ church informs us, by his great industry, magnificently perfected the choir, which his predecessor had left unfinished, (fn. 25) adorning it with curious pictures, and enriching it with many precious ornaments. (fn. 26)

 

This great undertaking was not entirely compleated at the death of archbishop Anselm, which happened in 1109, anno 9 Henry I. nor indeed for the space of five years afterwards, during which the see of Canterbury continued vacant; when being finished, in honour of its builder, and on account of its more than ordinary beauty, it gained the name of the glorious choir of Conrad. (fn. 27)

 

After the see of Canterbury had continued thus vacant for five years, Ralph, or as some call him, Rodulph, bishop of Rochester, was translated to it in the year 1114, at whose coming to it, the church was dedicated anew to the Holy Trinity, the name which had been before given to it by Lanfranc. (fn. 28) The only particular description we have of this church when thus finished, is from Gervas, the monk of this monastery, and that proves imperfect, as to the choir of Lanfranc, which had been taken down soon after his death; (fn. 29) the following is his account of the nave, or western part of it below the choir, being that which had been erected by archbishop Lanfranc, as has been before mentioned. From him we learn, that the west end, where the chapel of the Virgin Mary stood before, was now adorned with two stately towers, on the top of which were gilded pinnacles. The nave or body was supported by eight pair of pillars. At the east end of the nave, on the north side, was an oratory, dedicated in honor to the blessed Virgin, in lieu, I suppose, of the chapel, that had in the former church been dedicated to her at the west end. Between the nave and the choir there was built a great tower or steeple, as it were in the centre of the whole fabric; (fn. 30) under this tower was erected the altar of the Holy Cross; over a partition, which separated this tower from the nave, a beam was laid across from one side to the other of the church; upon the middle of this beam was fixed a great cross, between the images of the Virgin Mary and St. John, and between two cherubims. The pinnacle on the top of this tower, was a gilded cherub, and hence it was called the angel steeple; a name it is frequently called by at this day. (fn. 31)

 

This great tower had on each side a cross isle, called the north and south wings, which were uniform, of the same model and dimensions; each of them had a strong pillar in the middle for a support to the roof, and each of them had two doors or passages, by which an entrance was open to the east parts of the church. At one of these doors there was a descent by a few steps into the undercroft; at the other, there was an ascent by many steps into the upper parts of the church, that is, the choir, and the isles on each side of it. Near every one of these doors or passages, an altar was erected; at the upper door in the south wing, there was an altar in honour of All Saints; and at the lower door there was one of St. Michael; and before this altar on the south side was buried archbishop Fleologild; and on the north side, the holy Virgin Siburgis, whom St. Dunstan highly admired for her sanctity. In the north isle, by the upper door, was the altar of St. Blaze; and by the lower door, that of St. Benedict. In this wing had been interred four archbishops, Adelm and Ceolnoth, behind the altar, and Egelnoth and Wlfelm before it. At the entrance into this wing, Rodulph and his successor William Corboil, both archbishops, were buried. (fn. 32)

 

Hence, he continues, we go up by some steps into the great tower, and before us there is a door and steps leading down into the south wing, and on the right hand a pair of folding doors, with stairs going down into the nave of the church; but without turning to any of these, let us ascend eastward, till by several more steps we come to the west end of Conrad's choir; being now at the entrance of the choir, Gervas tells us, that he neither saw the choir built by Lanfranc, nor found it described by any one; that Eadmer had made mention of it, without giving any account of it, as he had done of the old church, the reason of which appears to be, that Lanfranc's choir did not long survive its founder, being pulled down as before-mentioned, by archbishop Anselm; so that it could not stand more than twenty years; therefore the want of a particular description of it will appear no great defect in the history of this church, especially as the deficiency is here supplied by Gervas's full relation of the new choir of Conrad, built instead of it; of which, whoever desires to know the whole architecture and model observed in the fabric, the order, number, height and form of the pillars and windows, may know the whole of it from him. The roof of it, he tells us, (fn. 33) was beautified with curious paintings representing heaven; (fn. 34) in several respects it was agreeable to the present choir, the stalls were large and framed of carved wood. In the middle of it, there hung a gilded crown, on which were placed four and twenty tapers of wax. From the choir an ascent of three steps led to the presbiterium, or place for the presbiters; here, he says, it would be proper to stop a little and take notice of the high altar, which was dedicated to the name of CHRIST. It was placed between two other altars, the one of St. Dunstan, the other of St. Alphage; at the east corners of the high altar were fixed two pillars of wood, beautified with silver and gold; upon these pillars was placed a beam, adorned with gold, which reached across the church, upon it there were placed the glory, (fn. 35) the images of St. Dunstan and St. Alphage, and seven chests or coffers overlaid with gold, full of the relics of many saints. Between those pillars was a cross gilded all over, and upon the upper beam of the cross were set sixty bright crystals.

 

Beyond this, by an ascent of eight steps towards the east, behind the altar, was the archiepiscopal throne, which Gervas calls the patriarchal chair, made of one stone; in this chair, according to the custom of the church, the archbishop used to sit, upon principal festivals, in his pontifical ornaments, whilst the solemn offices of religion were celebrated, until the consecration of the host, when he came down to the high altar, and there performed the solemnity of consecration. Still further, eastward, behind the patriarchal chair, (fn. 36) was a chapel in the front of the whole church, in which was an altar, dedicated to the Holy Trinity; behind which were laid the bones of two archbishops, Odo of Canterbury, and Wilfrid of York; by this chapel on the south side near the wall of the church, was laid the body of archbishop Lanfranc, and on the north side, the body of archbishop Theobald. Here it is to be observed, that under the whole east part of the church, from the angel steeple, there was an undercrost or crypt, (fn. 37) in which were several altars, chapels and sepulchres; under the chapel of the Trinity before-mentioned, were two altars, on the south side, the altar of St. Augustine, the apostle of the English nation, by which archbishop Athelred was interred. On the north side was the altar of St. John Baptist, by which was laid the body of archbishop Eadsin; under the high altar was the chapel and altar of the blessed Virgin Mary, to whom the whole undercroft was dedicated.

 

To return now, he continues, to the place where the bresbyterium and choir meet, where on each side there was a cross isle (as was to be seen in his time) which might be called the upper south and north wings; on the east side of each of these wings were two half circular recesses or nooks in the wall, arched over after the form of porticoes. Each of them had an altar, and there was the like number of altars under them in the crost. In the north wing, the north portico had the altar of St. Martin, by which were interred the bodies of two archbishops, Wlfred on the right, and Living on the left hand; under it in the croft, was the altar of St. Mary Magdalen. The other portico in this wing, had the altar of St. Stephen, and by it were buried two archbishops, Athelard on the left hand, and Cuthbert on the right; in the croft under it, was the altar of St. Nicholas. In the south wing, the north portico had the altar of St. John the Evangelist, and by it the bodies of Æthelgar and Aluric, archbishops, were laid. In the croft under it was the altar of St. Paulinus, by which the body of archbishop Siricius was interred. In the south portico was the altar of St. Gregory, by which were laid the corps of the two archbishops Bregwin and Plegmund. In the croft under it was the altar of St. Owen, archbishop of Roan, and underneath in the croft, not far from it the altar of St. Catherine.

 

Passing from these cross isles eastward there were two towers, one on the north, the other on the south side of the church. In the tower on the north side was the altar of St. Andrew, which gave name to the tower; under it, in the croft, was the altar of the Holy Innocents; the tower on the south side had the altar of St. Peter and St. Paul, behind which the body of St. Anselm was interred, which afterwards gave name both to the altar and tower (fn. 38) (now called St. Anselm's). The wings or isles on each side of the choir had nothing in particular to be taken notice of.— Thus far Gervas, from whose description we in particular learn, where several of the bodies of the old archbishops were deposited, and probably the ashes of some of them remain in the same places to this day.

 

As this building, deservedly called the glorious choir of Conrad, was a magnificent work, so the undertaking of it at that time will appear almost beyond example, especially when the several circumstances of it are considered; but that it was carried forward at the archbishop's cost, exceeds all belief. It was in the discouraging reign of king William Rufus, a prince notorious in the records of history, for all manner of sacrilegious rapine, that archbishop Anselm was promoted to this see; when he found the lands and revenues of this church so miserably wasted and spoiled, that there was hardly enough left for his bare subsistence; who, in the first years that he sat in the archiepiscopal chair, struggled with poverty, wants and continual vexations through the king's displeasure, (fn. 39) and whose three next years were spent in banishment, during all which time he borrowed money for his present maintenance; who being called home by king Henry I. at his coming to the crown, laboured to pay the debts he had contracted during the time of his banishment, and instead of enjoying that tranquility and ease he hoped for, was, within two years afterwards, again sent into banishment upon a fresh displeasure conceived against him by the king, who then seized upon all the revenues of the archbishopric, (fn. 40) which he retained in his own hands for no less than four years.

 

Under these hard circumstances, it would have been surprizing indeed, that the archbishop should have been able to carry on so great a work, and yet we are told it, as a truth, by the testimonies of history; but this must surely be understood with the interpretation of his having been the patron, protector and encourager, rather than the builder of this work, which he entrusted to the care and management of the priors Ernulph and Conrad, and sanctioned their employing, as Lanfranc had done before, the revenues and stock of the church to this use. (fn. 41)

 

In this state as above-mentioned, without any thing material happening to it, this church continued till about the year 1130, anno 30 Henry I. when it seems to have suffered some damage by a fire; (fn. 42) but how much, there is no record left to inform us; however it could not be of any great account, for it was sufficiently repaired, and that mostly at the cost of archbishop Corboil, who then sat in the chair of this see, (fn. 43) before the 4th of May that year, on which day, being Rogation Sunday, the bishops performed the dedication of it with great splendor and magnificence, such, says Gervas, col. 1664, as had not been heard of since the dedication of the temple of Solomon; the king, the queen, David, king of Scots, all the archbishops, and the nobility of both kingdoms being present at it, when this church's former name was restored again, being henceforward commonly called Christ-church. (fn. 44)

 

Among the manuscripts of Trinity college library, in Cambridge, in a very curious triple psalter of St. Jerome, in Latin, written by the monk Eadwyn, whose picture is at the beginning of it, is a plan or drawing made by him, being an attempt towards a representation of this church and monastery, as they stood between the years 1130 and 1174; which makes it probable, that he was one of the monks of it, and the more so, as the drawing has not any kind of relation to the plalter or sacred hymns contained in the manuscript.

 

His plan, if so it may be called, for it is neither such, nor an upright, nor a prospect, and yet something of all together; but notwithstanding this rudeness of the draftsman, it shews very plain that it was intended for this church and priory, and gives us a very clear knowledge, more than we have been able to learn from any description we have besides, of what both were at the above period of time. (fn. 45)

 

Forty-four years after this dedication, on the 5th of September, anno 1174, being the 20th year of king Henry II.'s reign, a fire happened, which consumed great part of this stately edifice, namely, the whole choir, from the angel steeple to the east end of the church, together with the prior's lodgings, the chapel of the Virgin Mary, the infirmary, and some other offices belonging to the monastery; but the angel steeple, the lower cross isles, and the nave appear to have received no material injury from the flames. (fn. 46) The narrative of this accident is told by Gervas, the monk of Canterbury, so often quoted before, who was an eye witness of this calamity, as follows:

 

Three small houses in the city near the old gate of the monastery took fire by accident, a strong south wind carried the flakes of fire to the top of the church, and lodged them between the joints of the lead, driving them to the timbers under it; this kindled a fire there, which was not discerned till the melted lead gave a free passage for the flames to appear above the church, and the wind gaining by this means a further power of increasing them, drove them inwardly, insomuch that the danger became immediately past all possibility of relief. The timber of the roof being all of it on fire, fell down into the choir, where the stalls of the manks, made of large pieces of carved wood, afforded plenty of fuel to the flames, and great part of the stone work, through the vehement heat of the fire, was so weakened, as to be brought to irreparable ruin, and besides the fabric itself, the many rich ornaments in the church were devoured by the flames.

 

The choir being thus laid in ashes, the monks removed from amidst the ruins, the bodies of the two saints, whom they called patrons of the church, the archbishops Dunstan and Alphage, and deposited them by the altar of the great cross, in the nave of the church; (fn. 47) and from this time they celebrated the daily religious offices in the oratory of the blessed Virgin Mary in the nave, and continued to do so for more than five years, when the choir being re edified, they returned to it again. (fn. 48)

 

Upon this destruction of the church, the prior and convent, without any delay, consulted on the most speedy and effectual method of rebuilding it, resolving to finish it in such a manner, as should surpass all the former choirs of it, as well in beauty as size and magnificence. To effect this, they sent for the most skilful architects that could be found either in France or England. These surveyed the walls and pillars, which remained standing, but they found great part of them so weakened by the fire, that they could no ways be built upon with any safety; and it was accordingly resolved, that such of them should be taken down; a whole year was spent in doing this, and in providing materials for the new building, for which they sent abroad for the best stone that could be procured; Gervas has given a large account, (fn. 49) how far this work advanced year by year; what methods and rules of architecture were observed, and other particulars relating to the rebuilding of this church; all which the curious reader may consult at his leisure; it will be sufficient to observe here, that the new building was larger in height and length, and more beautiful in every respect, than the choir of Conrad; for the roof was considerably advanced above what it was before, and was arched over with stone; whereas before it was composed of timber and boards. The capitals of the pillars were now beautified with different sculptures of carvework; whereas, they were before plain, and six pillars more were added than there were before. The former choir had but one triforium, or inner gallery, but now there were two made round it, and one in each side isle and three in the cross isles; before, there were no marble pillars, but such were now added to it in abundance. In forwarding this great work, the monks had spent eight years, when they could proceed no further for want of money; but a fresh supply coming in from the offerings at St. Thomas's tomb, so much more than was necessary for perfecting the repair they were engaged in, as encouraged them to set about a more grand design, which was to pull down the eastern extremity of the church, with the small chapel of the Holy Trinity adjoining to it, and to erect upon a stately undercroft, a most magnificent one instead of it, equally lofty with the roof of the church, and making a part of it, which the former one did not, except by a door into it; but this new chapel, which was dedicated likewise to the Holy Trinity, was not finished till some time after the rest of the church; at the east end of this chapel another handsome one, though small, was afterwards erected at the extremity of the whole building, since called Becket's crown, on purpose for an altar and the reception of some part of his relics; (fn. 50) further mention of which will be made hereafter.

 

The eastern parts of this church, as Mr. Gostling observes, have the appearance of much greater antiquity than what is generally allowed to them; and indeed if we examine the outside walls and the cross wings on each side of the choir, it will appear, that the whole of them was not rebuilt at the time the choir was, and that great part of them was suffered to remain, though altered, added to, and adapted as far as could be, to the new building erected at that time; the traces of several circular windows and other openings, which were then stopped up, removed, or altered, still appearing on the walls both of the isles and the cross wings, through the white-wash with which they are covered; and on the south side of the south isle, the vaulting of the roof as well as the triforium, which could not be contrived so as to be adjusted to the places of the upper windows, plainly shew it. To which may be added, that the base or foot of one of the westernmost large pillars of the choir on the north side, is strengthened with a strong iron band round it, by which it should seem to have been one of those pillars which had been weakened by the fire, but was judged of sufficient firmness, with this precaution, to remain for the use of the new fabric.

 

The outside of this part of the church is a corroborating proof of what has been mentioned above, as well in the method, as in the ornaments of the building.— The outside of it towards the south, from St. Michael's chapel eastward, is adorned with a range of small pillars, about six inches diameter, and about three feet high, some with santastic shasts and capitals, others with plain ones; these support little arches, which intersect each other; and this chain or girdle of pillars is continued round the small tower, the eastern cross isle and the chapel of St. Anselm, to the buildings added in honour of the Holy Trinity, and St. Thomas Becket, where they leave off. The casing of St. Michael's chapel has none of them, but the chapel of the Virgin Mary, answering to it on the north side of the church, not being fitted to the wall, shews some of them behind it; which seems as if they had been continued before, quite round the eastern parts of the church.

 

These pillars, which rise from about the level of the pavement, within the walls above them, are remarkably plain and bare of ornaments; but the tower above mentioned and its opposite, as soon as they rise clear of the building, are enriched with stories of this colonade, one above another, up to the platform from whence their spires rise; and the remains of the two larger towers eastward, called St. Anselm's, and that answering to it on the north side of the church, called St. Andrew's are decorated much after the same manner, as high as they remain at present.

 

At the time of the before-mentioned fire, which so fatally destroyed the upper part of this church, the undercrost, with the vaulting over it, seems to have remained entire, and unhurt by it.

 

The vaulting of the undercrost, on which the floor of the choir and eastern parts of the church is raised, is supported by pillars, whose capitals are as various and fantastical as those of the smaller ones described before, and so are their shafts, some being round, others canted, twisted, or carved, so that hardly any two of them are alike, except such as are quite plain.

 

These, I suppose, may be concluded to be of the same age, and if buildings in the same stile may be conjectured to be so from thence, the antiquity of this part of the church may be judged, though historians have left us in the dark in relation to it.

 

In Leland's Collectanea, there is an account and description of a vault under the chancel of the antient church of St. Peter, in Oxford, called Grymbald's crypt, being allowed by all, to have been built by him; (fn. 51) Grymbald was one of those great and accomplished men, whom king Alfred invited into England about the year 885, to assist him in restoring Christianity, learning and the liberal arts. (fn. 52) Those who compare the vaults or undercrost of the church of Canterbury, with the description and prints given of Grymbald's crypt, (fn. 53) will easily perceive, that two buildings could hardly have been erected more strongly resembling each other, except that this at Canterbury is larger, and more pro fusely decorated with variety of fancied ornaments, the shafts of several of the pillars here being twisted, or otherwise varied, and many of the captials exactly in the same grotesque taste as those in Grymbald's crypt. (fn. 54) Hence it may be supposed, that those whom archbishop Lanfranc employed as architects and designers of his building at Canterbury, took their model of it, at least of this part of it, from that crypt, and this undercrost now remaining is the same, as was originally built by him, as far eastward, as to that part which begins under the chapel of the Holy Trinity, where it appears to be of a later date, erected at the same time as the chapel. The part built by Lanfranc continues at this time as firm and entire, as it was at the very building of it, though upwards of seven hundred years old. (fn. 55)

 

But to return to the new building; though the church was not compleatly finished till the end of the year 1184, yet it was so far advanced towards it, that, in 1180, on April 19, being Easter eve, (fn. 56) the archbishop, prior and monks entered the new choir, with a solemn procession, singing Te Deum, for their happy return to it. Three days before which they had privately, by night, carried the bodies of St. Dunstan and St. Alphage to the places prepared for them near the high altar. The body likewise of queen Edive (which after the fire had been removed from the north cross isle, where it lay before, under a stately gilded shrine) to the altar of the great cross, was taken up, carried into the vestry, and thence to the altar of St. Martin, where it was placed under the coffin of archbishop Livinge. In the month of July following the altar of the Holy Trinity was demolished, and the bodies of those archbishops, which had been laid in that part of the church, were removed to other places. Odo's body was laid under St. Dunstan's and Wilfrid's under St. Alphage's; Lanfranc's was deposited nigh the altar of St. Martin, and Theobald's at that of the blessed Virgin, in the nave of the church, (fn. 57) under a marble tomb; and soon afterwards the two archbishops, on the right and left hand of archbishop Becket in the undercrost, were taken up and placed under the altar of St. Mary there. (fn. 58)

 

After a warning so terrible, as had lately been given, it seemed most necessary to provide against the danger of fire for the time to come; the flames, which had so lately destroyed a considerable part of the church and monastery, were caused by some small houses, which had taken fire at a small distance from the church.— There still remained some other houses near it, which belonged to the abbot and convent of St. Augustine; for these the monks of Christ-church created, by an exchange, which could not be effected till the king interposed, and by his royal authority, in a manner, compelled the abbot and convent to a composition for this purpose, which was dated in the year 1177, that was three years after the late fire of this church. (fn. 59)

 

These houses were immediately pulled down, and it proved a providential and an effectual means of preserving the church from the like calamity; for in the year 1180, on May 22, this new choir, being not then compleated, though it had been used the month be fore, as has been already mentioned, there happened a fire in the city, which burnt down many houses, and the flames bent their course towards the church, which was again in great danger; but the houses near it being taken away, the fire was stopped, and the church escaped being burnt again. (fn. 60)

 

Although there is no mention of a new dedication of the church at this time, yet the change made in the name of it has been thought by some to imply a formal solemnity of this kind, as it appears to have been from henceforth usually called the church of St. Thomas the Martyr, and to have continued so for above 350 years afterwards.

 

New names to churches, it is true. have been usually attended by formal consecrations of them; and had there been any such solemnity here, undoubtedly the same would not have passed by unnoticed by every historian, the circumstance of it must have been notorious, and the magnificence equal at least to the other dedications of this church, which have been constantly mentioned by them; but here was no need of any such ceremony, for although the general voice then burst forth to honour this church with the name of St. Thomas, the universal object of praise and adoration, then stiled the glorious martyr, yet it reached no further, for the name it had received at the former dedication, notwithstanding this common appellation of it, still remained in reality, and it still retained invariably in all records and writings, the name of Christ church only, as appears by many such remaining among the archives of the dean and chapter; and though on the seal of this church, which was changed about this time; the counter side of it had a representation of Becket's martyrdom, yet on the front of it was continued that of the church, and round it an inscription with the former name of Christ church; which seal remained in force till the dissolution of the priory.

 

It may not be improper to mention here some transactions, worthy of observation, relating to this favorite saint, which passed from the time of his being murdered, to that of his translation to the splendid shrine prepared for his relics.

 

Archbishop Thomas Becket was barbarously murdered in this church on Dec. 29, 1170, being the 16th year of king Henry II. and his body was privately buried towards the east end of the undercrost. The monks tell us, that about the Easter following, miracles began to be wrought by him, first at his tomb, then in the undercrost, and in every part of the whole fabric of the church; afterwards throughout England, and lastly, throughout the rest of the world. (fn. 61) The same of these miracles procured him the honour of a formal canonization from pope Alexander III. whose bull for that purpose is dated March 13, in the year 1172. (fn. 62) This declaration of the pope was soon known in all places, and the reports of his miracles were every where sounded abroad. (fn. 63)

 

Hereupon crowds of zealots, led on by a phrenzy of devotion, hastened to kneel at his tomb. In 1177, Philip, earl of Flanders, came hither for that purpose, when king Henry met and had a conference with him at Canterbury. (fn. 64) In June 1178, king Henry returning from Normandy, visited the sepulchre of this new saint; and in July following, William, archbishop of Rhemes, came from France, with a large retinue, to perform his vows to St. Thomas of Canterbury, where the king met him and received him honourably. In the year 1179, Lewis, king of France, came into England; before which neither he nor any of his predecessors had ever set foot in this kingdom. (fn. 65) He landed at Dover, where king Henry waited his arrival, and on August 23, the two kings came to Canterbury, with a great train of nobility of both nations, and were received with due honour and great joy, by the archbishop, with his com-provincial bishops, and the prior and the whole convent. (fn. 66)

 

King Lewis came in the manner and habit of a pilgrim, and was conducted to the tomb of St. Thomas by a solemn procession; he there offered his cup of gold and a royal precious stone, (fn. 67) and gave the convent a yearly rent for ever, of a hundred muids of wine, to be paid by himself and his successors; which grant was confirmed by his royal charter, under his seal, and delivered next day to the convent; (fn. 68) after he had staid here two, (fn. 69) or as others say, three days, (fn. 70) during which the oblations of gold and silver made were so great, that the relation of them almost exceeded credibility. (fn. 71) In 1181, king Henry, in his return from Normandy, again paid his devotions at this tomb. These visits were the early fruits of the adoration of the new sainted martyr, and these royal examples of kings and great persons were followed by multitudes, who crowded to present with full hands their oblations at his tomb.— Hence the convent was enabled to carry forward the building of the new choir, and they applied all this vast income to the fabric of the church, as the present case instantly required, for which they had the leave and consent of the archbishop, confirmed by the bulls of several succeeding popes. (fn. 72)

 

¶From the liberal oblations of these royal and noble personages at the tomb of St. Thomas, the expences of rebuilding the choir appear to have been in a great measure supplied, nor did their devotion and offerings to the new saint, after it was compleated, any ways abate, but, on the contrary, they daily increased; for in the year 1184, Philip, archbishop of Cologne, and Philip, earl of Flanders, came together to pay their vows at this tomb, and were met here by king Henry, who gave them an invitation to London. (fn. 73) In 1194, John, archbishop of Lions; in the year afterwards, John, archbishop of York; and in the year 1199, king John, performed their devotions at the foot of this tomb. (fn. 74) King Richard I. likewise, on his release from captivity in Germany, landing on the 30th of March at Sandwich, proceeded from thence, as an humble stranger on foot, towards Canterbury, to return his grateful thanks to God and St. Thomas for his release. (fn. 75) All these by name, with many nobles and multitudes of others, of all sorts and descriptions, visited the saint with humble adoration and rich oblations, whilst his body lay in the undercrost. In the mean time the chapel and altar at the upper part of the east end of the church, which had been formerly consecrated to the Holy Trinity, were demolished, and again prepared with great splendor, for the reception of this saint, who being now placed there, implanted his name not only on the chapel and altar, but on the whole church, which was from thenceforth known only by that of the church of St. Thomas the martyr.

  

On July 7, anno 1220, the remains of St. Thomas were translated from his tomb to his new shrine, with the greatest solemnity and rejoicings. Pandulph, the pope's legate, the archbishops of Canterbury and Rheims, and many bishops and abbots, carried the coffin on their shoulders, and placed it on the new shrine, and the king graced these solemnities with his royal presence. (fn. 76) The archbishop of Canterbury provided forage along all the road, between London and Canterbury, for the horses of all such as should come to them, and he caused several pipes and conduits to run with wine in different parts of the city. This, with the other expences arising during the time, was so great, that he left a debt on the see, which archbishop Boniface, his fourth successor in it, was hardly enabled to discharge.

 

¶The saint being now placed in his new repository, became the vain object of adoration to the deluded people, and afterwards numbers of licences were granted to strangers by the king, to visit this shrine. (fn. 77) The titles of glorious, of saint and martyr, were among those given to him; (fn. 78) such veneration had all people for his relics, that the religious of several cathedral churches and monasteries, used all their endeavours to obtain some of them, and thought themselves happy and rich in the possession of the smallest portion of them. (fn. 79) Besides this, there were erected and dedicated to his honour, many churches, chapels, altars and hospitals in different places, both in this kingdom and abroad. (fn. 80) Thus this saint, even whilst he lay in his obscure tomb in the undercroft, brought such large and constant supplies of money, as enabled the monks to finish this beautiful choir, and the eastern parts of the church; and when he was translated to the most exalted and honourable place in it, a still larger abundance of gain filled their coffers, which continued as a plentiful supply to them, from year to year, to the time of the reformation, and the final abolition of the priory itself.

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol11/pp306-383

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama,[note 3] Shakyamuni,[note 4] or simply the Buddha, was a sage[3] on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[web 2] He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in eastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.[4][note 5]

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age.[note 6] Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement[5] common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.[4][6]

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era in India during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatshatru who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain teacher.[7] Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential sramana schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jain, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahāvīra, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by.[8][9][note 7] There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques.[10] While the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true,[11] most scholars do not consistently accept all of the details contained in traditional biographies.[12][13]

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE.[1][14] More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.[1][15][note 5] These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.[20][21][note 9]

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[23] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.[23] According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in Kapilavastu, which may either be in present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 1] He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagara.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One edict of Emperor Ashoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edict mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Mauryan era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon.[34][note 11] The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gāndhārī language on twenty-seven birch bark scrolls, and they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.[web 10]The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.[35] Of these, the Buddhacarita[36][37][38] is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE.[35] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.[39] The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.[39] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra,[40] and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the Nidānakathā is from the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoṣa.[41]

 

From canonical sources, the Jātakas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts.[42] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".[43][44][45] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:[46]

 

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.

 

The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[47] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[48] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[11]The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, present-day Nepal, to be the birthplace of the Buddha.[49][note 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note 1] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India,[32] or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal.[50] Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.[50]

 

Siddharta Gautama was born as a Kshatriya,[51][note 13] the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan",[4] whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,[53][54] and ten months later[55] Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[56] Buddha's birth anniversary holiday is called "Buddha Purnima" in Nepal and India as Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.[57] By traditional account,[which?] this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[57] Kaundinya (Pali: Kondañña), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[58]

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.[59] The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[60] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.[61]Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[62] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.[62]According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 11] after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 11]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.[web 11] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 12] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 12]

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[70] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[70][web 13] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths",[web 13] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[web 13] or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan — who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.

 

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.Dhyana and insight[edit]

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight.[82][95][84] Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[85][81][82]

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama,[note 3] Shakyamuni,[note 4] or simply the Buddha, was a sage[3] on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[web 2] He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in eastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.[4][note 5]

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age.[note 6] Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement[5] common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.[4][6]

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era in India during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatshatru who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain teacher.[7] Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential sramana schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jain, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahāvīra, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by.[8][9][note 7] There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques.[10] While the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true,[11] most scholars do not consistently accept all of the details contained in traditional biographies.[12][13]

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE.[1][14] More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.[1][15][note 5] These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.[20][21][note 9]

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[23] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.[23] According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in Kapilavastu, which may either be in present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 1] He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagara.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One edict of Emperor Ashoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edict mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Mauryan era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon.[34][note 11] The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gāndhārī language on twenty-seven birch bark scrolls, and they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.[web 10]The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.[35] Of these, the Buddhacarita[36][37][38] is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE.[35] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.[39] The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.[39] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra,[40] and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the Nidānakathā is from the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoṣa.[41]

 

From canonical sources, the Jātakas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts.[42] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".[43][44][45] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:[46]

 

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.

 

The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[47] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[48] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[11]The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, present-day Nepal, to be the birthplace of the Buddha.[49][note 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note 1] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India,[32] or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal.[50] Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.[50]

 

Siddharta Gautama was born as a Kshatriya,[51][note 13] the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan",[4] whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,[53][54] and ten months later[55] Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[56] Buddha's birth anniversary holiday is called "Buddha Purnima" in Nepal and India as Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.[57] By traditional account,[which?] this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[57] Kaundinya (Pali: Kondañña), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[58]

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.[59] The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[60] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.[61]Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[62] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.[62]According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 11] after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 11]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.[web 11] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 12] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 12]

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[70] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[70][web 13] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths",[web 13] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[web 13] or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan — who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.

 

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.Dhyana and insight[edit]

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight.[82][95][84] Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[85][81][82]

Yesterday I was walking past the Our Lady of the Holy Spirit Center, and saw a sign for "Our Lady's Work - Shop"; I've passed the Center many times, but it had never occurred to me to go in. I thought I'd stop in and see what the shop was like.

 

When I got closer to the building, I was surprised by the good condition of the windows, which tends to be unusual for a building that is nearly 100 years old - especially one that had been unoccupied by years. (It was built in the 1920s by Archibishop Henry Moeller of Cincinnati as a seminary; the seminary moved to another location in 1981. I understand that it was virtually empty until 1993, when it opened as a Marian Center).

 

Entering the building, I found it to be quite grand archictecturally and in good shape. But as I looked for the shop, located in Room 150, I took a "wrong" turn and ended up in the Holy Rosary Chapel - it was so beautiful and quiet that I got goosebumps.

 

Eventually I found the shop, where I met Sally and Shannon, two sisters who grew up in Norwood and now own the shop together. They told me more about the history and current activities of the Center. Because they've lived all their lives in the area and are part of the Catholic community, they were very knowlegable about the seminary's history and its renovation. The building was in very poor shape in the early 90s, in fact, part of it collapsed. Volunteers and fundraisers have worked very hard to restore it, and it looks wonderful.

 

They also told me with enthusiasm about about the many activities of the center: the retreats, the library, the masses and courtyards, concerts, groups and even a radio station. It was great to learn about all the people and activities in the center.

 

Sally and Shannon said that the name of their shop, "Our Lady's Work", emphasizes working for Mary. They have created a very nice shop with an extensive inventory of books, statuary, jewelry, music and other religious items.

 

ourladyswork.com/

 

Sally & Shannon, I really enjoyed meeting with you and hearing your stories! Thanks for letting me take your picture!

 

Taken for my 100 Strangers Set

  

The answer from God’s word:

 

“The work of God continues to advance, and though the purpose of His work remains unchanging, the means by which He works are constantly changing, and thereby so are those who follow God. … All men wish to gain God yet are unable to tolerate any changes in God’s work. Those who do not accept the new work of God believe that the work of God is changeless, and that the work of God forever remains at a standstill. In their belief, all that is needed to gain eternal salvation from God is to keep the law, and as long as they repent and confess their sins, the heart of God will be forever satisfied. They are of the opinion that God can only be the God under the law and the God who was nailed on the cross for man; it is their opinion too that God should not and cannot exceed the Bible. It is precisely these ‘opinions’ that have shackled them firmly to the law of old and kept them fettered by rigid regulations. Even more believe that whatever the new work of God, it must be substantiated by prophecies, and that in each stage of such work, all ‘those who follow Him with a true heart’ must also be shown revelations, else that work could not be that of God. It is already no easy task for man to come to know God. Taken in addition to man’s absurd heart and his rebellious nature of self-importance and conceit, then it is all the more difficult for man to accept the new work of God. Man neither studies the new work of God with care nor accepts it with humility; rather, man adopts an attitude of contempt, waiting for the revelations and guidance of God. Is this not the behavior of a man who rebels against and opposes God? How can such men gain the approval of God?

……………

 

You say that Jesus has come, but we don’t believe it. Before He comes, He will surely give us a revelation first.

 

The greatest book of prophecy of Isaiah in the Old Testament never mentioned that a child named ‘Jesus’ would be born in the age of the New Testament, merely that a male infant would be born by the name of Emmanuel. Why did he not specify the name ‘Jesus’? Nowhere in the Old Testament does this name appear, so why then do you still believe in Jesus? Surely you did not have to see Jesus with your own eyes before you came to believe in Him? Or did you begin to believe upon receiving a revelation? Would God really show you such grace? And bestow upon you such a great blessing? On what basis did you believe in Jesus? Why then do you not believe that He has become flesh this day? Why do the absence of a revelation to you from God proves that He has not become flesh? Must God tell man prior to commencing His work? Must He first receive the approval of man? Isaiah only proclaimed that a male infant would be born in a manger but never prophesied that Mary would give birth to Jesus. Why then did you believe in Jesus whom Mary gave birth to? Surely your belief is not one of uncertainty and confusion! …

 

The Jews of the time all read from the Old Testament and knew of Isaiah’s prophecy that a male infant would be born in a manger. Why then, with this knowledge, did they still persecute Jesus? Is this not because of their rebellious nature and ignorance of the work of the Holy Spirit? At that time, the Pharisees believed that the work of Jesus was unlike what they knew of the prophesied male infant; man of today rejects God because the work of the incarnate God does not conform to the Bible. Is not the substance of their rebelliousness against God one and the same? Can you be such that you accept without question all the work of the Holy Spirit? If it is the work of the Holy Spirit, then it is the right ‘stream.’ You should accept it without the slightest misgivings, rather than picking and choosing what to accept. If you develop some discernment about God and exercise some caution against Him, is this not an act truly uncalled for? What you ought to do is acceptance of, without the need for further substantiation from the Bible, any work so long as it is that of the Holy Spirit, for you believe in God to follow God, not to investigate Him. You should not search out further proof for Me to show that I am your God. Rather, you ought to discern whether I am of benefit to you; that is the key.”

 

from “How Can Man Who Has Defined God in His ‘Conceptions’ Receive the ‘Revelations’ of God?” in The Word Appears in the Flesh

 

“Does God have to personally reveal the things to you and let you see and subdue you before you can believe? As a human being, you consider, what qualifies us to require God to personally appear to us? What qualifies us to ask God to personally speak to us corrupt men? And what qualifies us to ask God to make clear all things to us before we can believe? None. So, if you have sense, you will believe when reading these words God speaks. If you truly have belief, you will not mind how God works or what God says, but instead, on seeing that these words are the truth, you will believe one hundred percent in your heart that they are spoken by God and this is done by God, and you will be ready to follow God to the end, with no doubt.”

 

from “To Know Himself, One Needs to Know His Deep-rooted Inner Thoughts” in Christ’s Talks with Church Leaders and Workers

 

“… since we are searching for the footprints of God, we must search for God’s will, for the words of God, for the utterances of God—for where there are the new words of God, there is the voice of God, and where there are the footsteps of God, there are the deeds of God. Where there is the expression of God, there is the appearance of God, and where there is the appearance of God, there exists the truth, the way, and the life. While seeking the footprints of God, you all ignored the word that ‘God is the truth, the way, and the life.’ So when many people receive the truth, they do not believe that they have found the footprints of God and much less acknowledge the appearance of God. What a serious error that is! The appearance of God cannot be reconciled with the conceptions of man, much less can God appear at the request of man. God makes His own choices and has His own plans when He does His work; moreover, He has His own objectives, and His own methods. When He does His work, He does not need to discuss with man, or to seek the advice of man, much less notify each and every person. This is the disposition of God and furthermore should be recognized by everyone. If you desire to witness the appearance of God, if you wish to follow the footprints of God, then you must first transcend your own conceptions. You must not demand that God do this or that, much less should you place Him within your own confines and limit Him to your own conceptions. Instead, you should ask how you should seek the footprints of God, how you should accept the appearance of God, and how you should submit to the new work of God; that is what should be done by man. Since man is not the truth, and is not possessed of the truth, man should seek, accept, and obey.”

 

from “The Appearance of God Has Brought a New Age” in The Word Appears in the Flesh

Othello Castle, also known as Othello's Tower, is a castle in Famagusta, Northern Cyprus. It was built by the Lusignans in the 14th century, and was later modified by the Venetians. The modern name of the castle comes from a stage note in Shakespeare's play Othello.

 

Othello Castle was built in the 14th century by the Lusignans (who ruled the Kingdom of Cyprus) to protect the port against possible enemy attacks. It was also used as the main entrance to Famagusta. It used to be called "impenetrable fortress" due to it being nearly impossible to attack because of very deep ditches surrounding it.

 

After Cyprus was sold to the Republic of Venice, the castle's square towers were replaced with circular ones to suit more modern artillery. After these modifications, a relief of the Lion of St Mark was engraved above the castle's main entrance. The name of Captain Nicolo Foscari, who directed the alterations to the castle, and the date 1492 are inscribed near the relief. Apparently Leonardo da Vinci advised the refurbishment in 1481. The castle gets its name from Shakespeare's famous play Othello, which is set in a harbour town in Cyprus.

 

In 1900, the castle's ditch was drained of water to reduce the risk of malaria.

 

The castle began to be restored in 2014, and it reopened to the public on 3 July 2015.

 

The castle contains four circular towers. It contains a refectory and a dormitory, which were constructed during the Lusignan period. The castle's yard contains cannonballs left behind by the Spaniards and Ottomans, relics of its turbulent history.

 

Famagusta is a city on the east coast of the de facto state Northern Cyprus. It is located east of Nicosia and possesses the deepest harbour of the island. During the Middle Ages (especially under the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice), Famagusta was the island's most important port city and a gateway to trade with the ports of the Levant, from where the Silk Road merchants carried their goods to Western Europe. The old walled city and parts of the modern city are de facto part of Northern Cyprus as the capital of the Gazimağusa District.

 

The city was known as Arsinoe or Arsinoë (Greek: Ἀρσινόη, Arsinóē) in antiquity, after Ptolemy II of Egypt's sister and wife Arsinoe II.

 

By the 3rd century, the city appears as Ammochostos (Greek: Ἀμμόχωστος or Αμμόχωστος, Ammókhōstos, "Hidden in Sand") in the Stadiasmus Maris Magni.[5] This name is still used in modern Greek with the pronunciation [aˈmːoxostos], while it developed into Latin Fama Augusta, French Famagouste, Italian Famagosta, and English Famagusta during the medieval period. Its informal modern Turkish name Mağusa (Turkish pronunciation: [maˈusa]) came from the same source. Since 1974, it has formally been known to Turkey and Northern Cyprus as Gazimağusa ([ɡaːzimaˈusa]), from the addition of the title gazi, meaning "veteran" or "one who has faught in a holy war".

 

In the early medieval period, the city was also known as New Justiniana (Greek: Νέα Ἰουστινιανία, Néa Ioustinianía) in appreciation for the patronage of the Byzantine emperor Justinian, whose wife Theodora was born there.

 

The old town of Famagusta has also been nicknamed "the City of 365 Churches" from the legend that, at its peak, it boasted a church for every day of the year.

 

The city was founded around 274 BC, after the serious damage to Salamis by an earthquake, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus and named "Arsinoe" after his sister.[6] Arsinoe was described as a "fishing town" by Strabo in his Geographica in the first century BC. In essence, Famagusta was the successor of the most famous and most important ancient city of Cyprus, Salamis. According to Greek mythology, Salamis was founded after the end of the Trojan War by Teucros, the son of Telamon and brother of Aedes, from the Greek island of Salamis.

 

The city experienced great prosperity much later, during the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. To honor the city, from which his wife Theodora came, Justinian enriched it with many buildings, while the inhabitants named it New Justiniania to express their gratitude. In AD 647, when the neighboring cities were destroyed by Arab raiding, the inhabitants of these cities moved to Famagusta, as a result of which the city's population increased significantly and the city experienced another boom.

 

Later, when Jerusalem was occupied by the Arabs, the Christian population fled to Famagusta, as a result of which the city became an important Christian center, but also one of the most important commercial centers in the eastern Mediterranean.

 

The turning point for Famagusta was 1192 with the onset of Lusignan rule. It was during this period that Famagusta developed as a fully-fledged town. It increased in importance to the Eastern Mediterranean due to its natural harbour and the walls that protected its inner town. Its population began to increase. This development accelerated in the 13th century as the town became a centre of commerce for both the East and West. An influx of Christian refugees fleeing the downfall of Acre (1291) in Palestine transformed it from a tiny village into one of the richest cities in Christendom.

 

In 1372 the port was seized by Genoa and in 1489 by Venice. This commercial activity turned Famagusta into a place where merchants and ship owners led lives of luxury. By the mid-14th century, Famagusta was said to have the richest citizens in the world. The belief that people's wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches built in varying styles. These churches, which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as "the district of churches". The development of the town focused on the social lives of the wealthy people and was centred upon the Lusignan palace, the cathedral, the Square and the harbour.

 

In 1570–1571, Famagusta was the last stronghold in Venetian Cyprus to hold out against the Turks under Mustafa Pasha. It resisted a siege of thirteen months and a terrible bombardment, until at last the garrison surrendered. The Ottoman forces had lost 50,000 men, including Mustafa Pasha's son. Although the surrender terms had stipulated that the Venetian forces be allowed to return home, the Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadin, was flayed alive, his lieutenant Tiepolo was hanged, and many other Christians were killed.

 

With the advent of the Ottoman rule, Latins lost their privileged status in Famagusta and were expelled from the city. Greek Cypriots natives were at first allowed to own and buy property in the city, but were banished from the walled city in 1573–74 and had to settle outside in the area that later developed into Varosha. Turkish families from Anatolia were resettled in the walled city but could not fill the buildings that previously hosted a population of 10,000. This caused a drastic decrease in the population of Famagusta. Merchants from Famagusta, who mostly consisted of Latins that had been expelled, resettled in Larnaca and as Larnaca flourished, Famagusta lost its importance as a trade centre. Over time, Varosha developed into a prosperous agricultural town thanks to its location away from the marshes, whilst the walled city remained dilapidated.

 

In the walled city, some buildings were repurposed to serve the interests of the Muslim population: the Cathedral of St. Nicholas was converted to a mosque (now known as Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque), a bazaar was developed, public baths, fountains and a theological school were built to accommodate the inhabitants' needs. Dead end streets, an Ottoman urban characteristic, was imported to the city and a communal spirit developed in which a small number of two-storey houses inhabited by the small upper class co-existed with the widespread one-storey houses.

 

With the British takeover, Famagusta regained its significance as a port and an economic centre and its development was specifically targeted in British plans. As soon as the British took over the island, a Famagusta Development Act was passed that aimed at the reconstruction and redevelopment of the city's streets and dilapidated buildings as well as better hygiene. The port was developed and expanded between 1903 and 1906 and Cyprus Government Railway, with its terminus in Famagusta, started construction in 1904. Whilst Larnaca continued to be used as the main port of the island for some time, after Famagusta's use as a military base in World War I trade significantly shifted to Famagusta. The city outside the walls grew at an accelerated rate, with development being centred around Varosha. Varosha became the administrative centre as the British moved their headquarters and residences there and tourism grew significantly in the last years of the British rule. Pottery and production of citrus and potatoes also significantly grew in the city outside the walls, whilst agriculture within the walled city declined to non-existence.

 

New residential areas were built to accommodate the increasing population towards the end of the British rule,[11] and by 1960, Famagusta was a modern port city extending far beyond Varosha and the walled city.

 

The British period saw a significant demographic shift in the city. In 1881, Christians constituted 60% of the city's population while Muslims were at 40%. By 1960, the Turkish Cypriot population had dropped to 17.5% of the overall population, while the Greek Cypriot population had risen to 70%. The city was also the site for one of the British internment camps for nearly 50,000 Jewish survivors of the Holocaust trying to emigrate to Palestine.

 

From independence in 1960 to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus of 1974, Famagusta developed toward the south west of Varosha as a well-known entertainment and tourist centre. The contribution of Famagusta to the country's economic activity by 1974 far exceeded its proportional dimensions within the country. Whilst its population was only about 7% of the total of the country, Famagusta by 1974 accounted for over 10% of the total industrial employment and production of Cyprus, concentrating mainly on light industry compatible with its activity as a tourist resort and turning out high-quality products ranging from food, beverages and tobacco to clothing, footwear, plastics, light machinery and transport equipment. It contributed 19.3% of the business units and employed 21.3% of the total number of persons engaged in commerce on the island. It acted as the main tourist destination of Cyprus, hosting 31.5% of the hotels and 45% of Cyprus' total bed capacity. Varosha acted as the main touristic and business quarters.

 

In this period, the urbanisation of Famagusta slowed down and the development of the rural areas accelerated. Therefore, economic growth was shared between the city of Famagusta and the district, which had a balanced agricultural economy, with citrus, potatoes, tobacco and wheat as main products. Famagusta maintained good communications with this hinterland. The city's port remained the island's main seaport and in 1961, it was expanded to double its capacity in order to accommodate the growing volume of exports and imports. The port handled 42.7% of Cypriot exports, 48.6% of imports and 49% of passenger traffic.

 

There has not been an official census since 1960 but the population of the town in 1974 was estimated to be around 39,000 not counting about 12,000–15,000 persons commuting daily from the surrounding villages and suburbs to work in Famagusta. The number of people staying in the city would swell to about 90,000–100,000 during the peak summer tourist period, with the influx of tourists from numerous European countries, mainly Britain, France, Germany and the Scandinavian countries. The majority of the city population were Greek Cypriots (26,500), with 8,500 Turkish Cypriots and 4,000 people from other ethnic groups.

 

During the second phase of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 14 August 1974 the Mesaoria plain was overrun by Turkish tanks and Famagusta was bombed by Turkish aircraft. It took two days for the Turkish Army to occupy the city, prior to which Famagusta's entire Greek Cypriot population had fled into surrounding fields. As a result of Turkish airstrikes dozens of civilians died, including tourists.

 

Unlike other parts of the Turkish-controlled areas of Cyprus, the Varosha suburb of Famagusta was fenced off by the Turkish army immediately after being captured and remained fenced off until October 2020, when the TRNC reopened some streets to visitors. Some Greek Cypriots who had fled Varosha have been allowed to view the town and journalists have been allowed in.

 

UN Security Council resolution 550 (1984) considers any attempts to settle any part of Famagusta by people other than its inhabitants as inadmissible and calls for the transfer of this area to the administration of the UN. The UN's Security Council resolution 789 (1992) also urges that with a view to the implementation of resolution 550 (1984), the area at present under the control of the United Nations Peace-keeping Force in Cyprus be extended to include Varosha.

 

Famagusta's historic city centre is surrounded by the fortifications of Famagusta, which have a roughly rectangular shape, built mainly by the Venetians in the 15th and 16th centuries, though some sections of the walls have been dated earlier times, as far as 1211.

 

Some important landmarks and visitor attractions in the old city are:

The Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque

The Othello Castle

Palazzo del Provveditore - the Venetian palace of the governor, built on the site of the former Lusignan royal palace

St. Francis' Church

Sinan Pasha Mosque

Church of St. George of the Greeks

Church of St. George of the Latins

Twin Churches

Nestorian Church (of St George the Exiler)

Namık Kemal Dungeon

Agios Ioannis Church

Venetian House

Akkule Masjid

Mustafa Pasha Mosque

Ganchvor monastery

 

In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage, Global Heritage Fund listed Famagusta, a "maritime ancient city of crusader kings", among the 12 sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing insufficient management and development pressures.

 

Famagusta is an important commercial hub of Northern Cyprus. The main economic activities in the city are tourism, education, construction and industrial production. It has a 115-acre free port, which is the most important seaport of Northern Cyprus for travel and commerce. The port is an important source of income and employment for the city, though its volume of trade is restricted by the embargo against Northern Cyprus. Its historical sites, including the walled city, Salamis, the Othello Castle and the St Barnabas Church, as well as the sandy beaches surrounding it make it a tourist attraction; efforts are also underway to make the city more attractive for international congresses. The Eastern Mediterranean University is also an important employer and supplies significant income and activity, as well as opportunities for the construction sector. The university also raises a qualified workforce that stimulates the city's industry and makes communications industry viable. The city has two industrial zones: the Large Industrial Zone and the Little Industrial Zone. The city is also home to a fishing port, but inadequate infrastructure of the port restricts the growth of this sector. The industry in the city has traditionally been concentrated on processing agricultural products.

 

Historically, the port was the primary source of income and employment for the city, especially right after 1974. However, it gradually lost some of its importance to the economy as the share of its employees in the population of Famagusta diminished due to various reasons. However, it still is the primary port for commerce in Northern Cyprus, with more than half of ships that came to Northern Cyprus in 2013 coming to Famagusta. It is the second most popular seaport for passengers, after Kyrenia, with around 20,000 passengers using the port in 2013.

 

The mayor-in-exile of Famagusta is Simos Ioannou. Süleyman Uluçay heads the Turkish Cypriot municipal administration of Famagusta, which remains legal as a communal-based body under the constitutional system of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Since 1974, Greek Cypriots submitted a number of proposals within the context of bicommunal discussions for the return of Varosha to UN administration, allowing the return of its previous inhabitants, requesting also the opening of Famagusta harbour for use by both communities. Varosha would have been returned to Greek Cypriot control as part of the 2004 Annan Plan but the plan had been rejected by a majority(3/4) of Greek Cypriot voters.

 

The walled city of Famagusta contains many unique buildings. Famagusta has a walled city popular with tourists.

 

Every year, the International Famagusta Art and Culture Festival is organized in Famagusta. Concerts, dance shows and theater plays take place during the festival.

 

A growth in tourism and the city's university have fueled the development of Famagusta's vibrant nightlife. Nightlife in the city is especially active on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday nights and in the hotter months of the year, starting from April. Larger hotels in the city have casinos that cater to their customers. Salamis Road is an area of Famagusta with a heavy concentration of bars frequented by students and locals.

 

Famagusta's Othello Castle is the setting for Shakespeare's play Othello. The city was also the setting for Victoria Hislop's 2015 novel The Sunrise, and Michael Paraskos's 2016 novel In Search of Sixpence. The city is the birthplace of the eponymous hero of the Renaissance proto-novel Fortunatus.

 

Famagusta was home to many Greek Cypriot sport teams that left the city because of the Turkish invasion and still bear their original names. Most notable football clubs originally from the city are Anorthosis Famagusta FC and Nea Salamis Famagusta FC, both of the Cypriot First Division, which are now based in Larnaca. Usually Anorthosis Famagusta fans are politically right wing where Nea Salamis fans are left wing.

 

Famagusta is represented by Mağusa Türk Gücü in the Turkish Cypriot First Division. Dr. Fazıl Küçük Stadium is the largest football stadium in Famagusta. Many Turkish Cypriot sport teams that left Southern Cyprus because of the Cypriot intercommunal violence are based in Famagusta.

 

Famagusta is represented by DAÜ Sports Club and Magem Sports Club in North Cyprus First Volleyball Division. Gazimağusa Türk Maarif Koleji represents Famagusta in the North Cyprus High School Volleyball League.

 

Famagusta has a modern volleyball stadium called the Mağusa Arena.

 

The Eastern Mediterranean University was founded in the city in 1979. The Istanbul Technical University founded a campus in the city in 2010.

 

The Cyprus College of Art was founded in Famagusta by the Cypriot artist Stass Paraskos in 1969, before moving to Paphos in 1972 after protests from local hoteliers that the presence of art students in the city was putting off holidaymakers.

 

Famagusta has three general hospitals. Gazimağusa Devlet Hastahanesi, a state hospital, is the biggest hospital in city. Gazimağusa Tıp Merkezi and Gazimağusa Yaşam Hastahanesi are private hospitals.

 

Personalities

Saint Barnabas, born and died in Salamis, Famagusta

Chris Achilleos, illustrator of the book versions on the BBC children's series Doctor Who

Beran Bertuğ, former Governor of Famagusta, first Cypriot woman to hold this position

Marios Constantinou, former international Cypriot football midfielder and current manager.

Eleftheria Eleftheriou, Cypriot singer.

Derviş Eroğlu, former President of Northern Cyprus

Alexis Galanos, 7th President of the House of Representatives and Famagusta mayor-in-exile (2006-2019) (Republic of Cyprus)

Xanthos Hadjisoteriou, Cypriot painter

Oz Karahan, political activist, President of the Union of Cypriots

Oktay Kayalp, former Turkish Cypriot Famagusta mayor (Northern Cyprus)

Harry Luke British diplomat

Angelos Misos, former international footballer

Costas Montis was an influential and prolific Greek Cypriot poet, novelist, and playwright born in Famagusta.

Hal Ozsan, actor (Dawson's Creek, Kyle XY)

Dimitris Papadakis, a Greek Cypriot politician, who served as a Member of the European Parliament.

Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, Persian religious leader, lived and died in exile in Famagusta

Touker Suleyman (born Türker Süleyman), British Turkish Cypriot fashion retail entrepreneur, investor and reality television personality.

Alexia Vassiliou, singer, left here as a refugee when the town was invaded.

George Vasiliou, former President of Cyprus

Vamik Volkan, Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry

Derviş Zaim, film director

 

Famagusta is twinned with:

İzmir, Turkey (since 1974)

Corfu, Greece (since 1994)

Patras, Greece (since 1994)

Antalya, Turkey (since 1997)

Salamina (city), Greece (since 1998)

Struga, North Macedonia

Athens, Greece (since 2005)

Mersin, Turkey

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

‘Art for Peace Exhibition’ in Baghdad: Expressions of Peace, Reconciliation and Hope

 

Baghdad, 3 March 2017 - The beauty of Iraq truly stems from the roots of the country’s rich, historical culture. Despite the fact that Iraq is currently embroiled in a battle to weed out the terrorist group Daesh from its soil and the fact that Baghdad has to endure the brunt of frequent bombings and terrorist attacks, Iraq boasts a rather vibrant, elegant, expressive, artistic and peaceful cultural scene. It is this part of Iraq that brings together people from all walks of life - irrespective of age, creed, colour, race, or gender - in the spirit of oneness, an energetic spirit that binds one another to appreciate the peace, joy, comfort and neutrality that art brings to one’s imagination. The Art for Peace Exhibition in Baghdad, organised by the United Nations Mission for Iraq (UNAMI), in partnership with the National Reconciliation Committee of the Prime Minister’s office, could not have made this notion any clearer.

 

Held on Friday 03 March 2017 in the courtyard of the Baghdadi Cultural Centre located in the heart of Al-Mutannabi Street - one of the oldest and best known streets in Baghdad and affectionately referred to as the historical literary jewel in the city - over 70 paintings, caricatures, and photographs by Iraqi artists were on display. While each artist used a different medium of expression, the unifying factor was that each admirable simple piece of work expressed hope for peace among all the people in Iraq, and the yearning of peace and reconciliation for the future to build a free and flourishing world for generations to come. The Iraqi painters, photographers and caricaturists who participated in this first-ever Art for Peace project were commissioned to produce works that portrayed their messages for peaceful coexistence and harmony, reconciliation and hope.

The event itself is a stark illustration of the resilience of Iraqis who are enduring a devastating conflict with the terrorist Daesh group which is in its last throes in Mosul, and a terrorist bombing campaign that is deliberately targeting civilians in Baghdad and elsewhere. It shows that despite the ongoing conflict in Iraq, art remains the language that brings people together in peace and reconciliation. It also serves to counter the destruction by Daesh of historic sites and work of art work in the areas they controlled.

 

At the exhibition, the Deputy Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General for Iraq (DSRSG) for Political and Electoral Affairs, Mr. György Busztin, reiterated the importance of art in disseminating messages of peace, reconciliation, tolerance and coexistence. “Such endeavours by talented Iraqi artists, illustrators, painters and photographers transcends ethnic and sectarian differences and constitute the bedrock for an inclusive national reconciliation that will usher in the stability and prosperity for all Iraqis”.

 

Raed Hassan, a young Iraqi caricaturist spends his time drawing images that are graphic and emotional but which carry explicit messages. He easily narrates how “having a peaceful Iraq is all that he wants, especially for the future of his children”. Mr. Hassan pointed to one of his images – one in which there is a long queue of people, albeit mostly men, who seem to be in despair and a prominent syringe jutting into the leader’s head, inscribed with the words “Peace”. Mr. Hassan is very attached to this piece of work and in probing him for a reason, he simply states: “Study the caricature carefully and see the simplicity of it all – all we need in Iraq is for everyone to inject the idea of peace in their minds, to be rid of all the evil and harmful notions, and to thus clean our minds and hearts so that ‘peace’ can filter into every vein and bone in our bodies”.

 

“What could be more powerful than this?” he asks.

As the winter clouds gave way to a clear blue sunny sky, the colours on the oil paintings on display were easily entwined in the warmth of the sun’s rays. Mohammed Musayir stood patiently next to his paintings, many of which portrayed his thoughts on reconciliation among all Iraqis. The one painting that stood out depicted tolerance of faith, with Mohammed saying that “faith has no face – which is why the lady in my painting has no face. She could represent Islam by the Abaya she adorns, or she could tell the story of Christianity with the Holy Cross laid across her face. In the background, I have the places of worship for both faiths – open and inviting for all who choose to unite and live in peace, dignity and harmony”.

 

As Mr. Musayer shares his hopes for peaceful coexistence in Iraq, his thoughts are a reminder that engaging in dialogue, creating awareness and promoting tolerance and acceptance among peoples of different faiths, beliefs and cultures are key stepping stones towards building a hopeful and peaceful society in Iraq and across the globe.

 

After Baghdad, the Art for Peace travelling exhibition will be on display throughout March and April 2017 in the following Iraqi governorates: Babil, Karbala, Thi-Qar, Missan, Basrah, Diyala, Salah Al-din and Erbil.

 

Source and photos: UNAMI PIO

www.cagnz.org/what-is-rapture-before-tribulation.html

 

Hello brothers and sisters of Our Daily Devotionals ,

 

We are now in the last stage of the last days, I’ve seen in the news that all kinds of disasters are growing and growing in scale, and whether or not I can be caught up before the disasters and made into an overcomer before the disasters are key issues for me. My opinion about these two issues is that, so long as we hold to the name of the Lord no matter what happens, work hard for the Lord and do not turn back as we go through all manner of adversities, then we can become overcomers. And when the disasters come, we can then be caught up into the sky to meet with the Lord and enjoy His promise. But some have questioned my opinion, saying that some people have now achieved this and that, moreover, the disasters are growing in scale and many kinds of disasters have befallen us already, and yet still no one has been seen being raised up into the sky. Does being caught up really mean being raised up into the sky? And is it so simple to become an overcomer, that one becomes an overcomer just by achieving these things? I don’t quite understand all this, so I’d like to ask your opinion. Looking forward to your reply!

 

Sincerely yours,

 

Xiao Xiao

  

Hello Sister Xiao Xiao:

 

That we can seek and fellowship about issues that we do not fully understand accords with God’s will. Thank the Lord!

 

Whether or not we can be caught up before the disasters and can be made into overcomers before the disasters directly relates to whether or not we can enter into the heavenly kingdom. But if we want ultimately to be made into overcomers and be caught up into heaven, we must first understand what exactly being caught up means, and what being made into overcomers means. These two issues have been separated below for discussion. May God guide us!

 

1. What Is the Rapture Before Tribulation?

If we want to understand what it means to be caught up before the disasters, we must first know what it means to be caught up. Some people believe that being caught up means that, when the Lord returns, He will raise us up into the sky to meet with Him, and this is because Paul said in 1 Thessalonians 4:17: “Then we which are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds, to meet the Lord in the air: and so shall we ever be with the Lord.” But is this what the Lord intended? This is just what Paul himself said; the Lord Jesus never said this, the Holy Spirit never bore such testimony, and therefore these words cannot represent the Lord’s intention. As we all know, in the beginning God created mankind on earth using clay, He set them to oversee all the things God had created on earth and He enjoined them to worship Him and glorify Him. What’s more, God long ago told us clearly that God would establish His kingdom on earth, that He would abide with man on earth, and that the kingdoms of the world would all become kingdoms ruled over by Christ. It is just as the prophecies in Revelation say, “Behold, the tabernacle of God is with men, and He will dwell with them, and they shall be His people, and God Himself shall be with them, and be their God” (Revelation 21:3). “The kingdoms of this world are become the kingdoms of our Lord, and of His Christ; and He shall reign for ever and ever” (Revelation 11:15). Therefore, when the Lord returns, He will not raise people up into the sky to meet with Him, but will establish His kingdom on earth, for the destination God has prepared for us is to be found on earth. Moreover, if we were caught up into the sky, we wouldn’t be able to survive up there. So the belief that to be caught up means to be raised up into heaven does not accord with the truth and does not accord with the facts of God’s work; it is merely a product of our conceptions and imaginings, and it is an extravagant wish.

 

So what does it mean to be caught up? Let’s read a passage of God’s words and then we’ll understand. This passage states: “‘Being caught up’ is not being taken from a low place to a high place as people imagine. This is a huge mistake. Being caught up is referring to My predestining and selecting. It is targeted at all those I have predestined and chosen. Those who have gained the status of firstborn son, the status of sons, or people, are all those who have been caught up. This is most incompatible with people’s notions. Those who have a share in My house in the future are all people who have been caught up before Me. This is absolutely true, never-changing, and cannot be refuted by anybody. This is the counterattack against Satan. Anyone I predestined shall be caught up before Me.”

 

From this passage, we are able to know clearly that being caught up does not mean that we are raised from a low place to a high place, but rather it refers to those who are predestined and chosen by God. Being predestined refers to those who were predestined by God to attain salvation before the ages, and being chosen refers to those who are predestined being able to follow God’s footsteps, come before God and accept His new work—this is what being caught up means. As we are well aware, at the end of the Age of Law, the Lord Jesus came to carry out a new stage of work. At that time, Peter, John, Matthew, James and so on, all heard the sermons preached by Jesus, so they left the law behind and followed the Lord, and thus they were caught up before God. Similarly, the Lord Jesus said that He would return in the last days and that He would come amongst man to speak His words and perform His work to save man. As the Lord Jesus said: “I have yet many things to say to you, but you cannot bear them now. However, when He, the Spirit of truth, is come, He will guide you into all truth: for He shall not speak of Himself; but whatever He shall hear, that shall He speak: and He will show you things to come” (John 16:12–13). “For the time is come that judgment must begin at the house of God” (1 Peter 4:17). “He that rejects Me, and receives not My words, has one that judges him: the word that I have spoken, the same shall judge him in the last day” (John 12:48). “And I saw the dead, small and great, stand before God; and the books were opened: and another book was opened, which is the book of life: and the dead were judged out of those things which were written in the books, according to their works” (Revelation 20:12). From this, we can clearly see that when the Lord Jesus returns in the last days, He yet has many things to say to us and He will express His words and perform the work of judgment. Only by accepting God’s work of judgment of the last days can we truly be caught up before God.

 

Therefore, as the name implies, being caught up before the disasters means that God will once again come in person into the world before the great disasters arrive to do the work He must do, and only by welcoming the return of the Lord during this time can we be caught up before the disasters.

 

We’ve now fellowshiped about what being caught up before the disasters means, so now let’s fellowship what it means to be made into overcomers before the disasters.

 

2. What Is an Overcomer Made Before the Tribulation?

Before we can understand what it means to be made into an overcomer before the disasters, we first have to understand what the overcomers are. Literally, it means a group of people who overcome. As all who believe in God know, Satan is the enemy of God, and so we must overcome, which assuredly means that we must overcome Satan. Therefore, the overcomers refers to the group of people who will overcome Satan. But what does it mean to overcome Satan? Ever since our ancestors Adam and Eve were seduced by Satan, mankind has lived in sin and has been filled with all manner of corrupt dispositions, such as being arrogant and conceited, selfish and despicable, crooked and deceitful, and so on. It can be said that each and every one of us is fettered by these things and we live relying on these poisons. Therefore, overcoming Satan means to cast off Satan’s bonds and fetters, to utterly rid ourselves of all the satanic poisons that plague us and no longer live by them, but instead be able to hear God’s words and live by God’s words. In this way, we can be named overcomers and our sins can truly be purified, and we can live in the light and be worthy of God’s inheritance. Just as it is recorded in Revelation, “These are they which came out of great tribulation, and have washed their robes, and made them white in the blood of the Lamb” (Revelation 7:14). “Blessed are they that do his commandments, that they may have right to the tree of life, and may enter in through the gates into the city” (Revelation 22:14). “Him that overcomes will I make a pillar in the temple of My God, and he shall go no more out” (Revelation 3:12). “He that overcomes shall inherit all things; and I will be his God, and he shall be My son” (Revelation 21:7). “These are they which were not defiled with women; for they are virgins. These are they which follow the Lamb wherever He goes. These were redeemed from among men, being the first fruits to God and to the Lamb. And in their mouth was found no guile: for they are without fault before the throne of God” (Revelation 14:4–5). And God’s words say, “Those who are made complete before the disaster are obedient to God. They live reliant on Christ, witness Christ, and exalt Him. They are the victorious male children and the good soldiers of Christ.”

 

From these words, we can see that the overcomers are those who make it through great tribulations. They experience the judgment of God’s words, their corrupt dispositions are cleansed away, they possess the reality of obedience to God, they enter God’s kingdom and they enjoy His promise. To say it another way, being an overcomer does not mean being able to suffer, to pay a price and to keep the Lord’s name in one’s faith in the Lord, and it does not mean not turning back when tribulations arise; instead, it means accepting God’s work of judgment of the last days and having one’s sins cleansed away. But how much of our current filth and corruption has been cleansed away? We have not yet rid ourselves of any of our corrupt dispositions, such as being arrogant and conceited, selfish and despicable, crooked and deceitful, wicked and greedy, and so on. When God blesses us, we can obey Him, but when things happen that are not to our liking, we are capable of involuntarily blaming God. When we see others who are better at giving sermons than we are, jealousy and hatred toward them can arise within us. When matters touch upon our own interests, we can engage in deception and not be honest—these are just a few examples. Therefore, if we want to be caught up before the disasters and be made into overcomers before the disasters, then we must accept God’s work of the last days before the disasters arrive, experience the judgment and chastisement of God’s words, cast off all the corrupt dispositions of Satan, live by God’s words, exalt Christ and bear witness to Christ in all things, and obey and worship God. Only then can one be considered to have been made into an overcomer by God and be qualified to inherit God’s promise and to enter into His kingdom.

 

Sister Xiao Xiao, our understanding and knowledge of what “being caught up before the disasters” and “being made into overcomers before the disasters” mean is also limited and we can only provide such a fellowship as this, but we hope this has been of some help to you. If there is anything else you don’t understand or if you have any more problems, please write to us and we’ll seek and fellowship together again.

 

Our Daily Devotionals

 

If you want to know more about the mystery of the rapture in the Bible, read more on our Rapture page, or in the following articles.

  

Source from:Daily Devotionals

 

Image Source:Daily Devotionals

  

Its beginning to feel a little like Spring.

 

Even if the temperature didn't get above 4 degrees today, the sun did shine, and there was little breeze. And on our travels through the Kent countryside, spring flowers were everywhere to be seen.

 

We got up at half six when the water heater fired up, fed the cats, gave Scully her jab and made coffee.

 

Then to Whitfield for some hunting and gathering. Jools needing a cider restock and then the rest of the stuff we get through each week.

 

At least shopping so early means missing most of the crazies, and we see the same faces each week, though not well enough to speak, maybe the nod of a head.

 

Back home for breakfast of fruit and tea, put the shopping away and ignore the meows for more food.

 

And off out for some gentle churchcrawling. Our first target is perhaps the last substantial Norman church in east Kent I had yet to visit: Great Chart.

 

Great Chart is now a suburb of Ashford, which is spreading westwards towards the Romney Marsh. This means navigating the series of manic roundabouts onto the A28, past Waitrose and out of town, turning off on about the tenth roundabout, and through the village, no new builds here.

 

And on top of the hill is the church, which Google maps assured me would be open at ten. It was twenty five to eleven, so safe as milk?

 

No. It was locked, with no details of keyholders. So I took some exterior shots and we walked back to the car.

 

I had a back up. We were going here anyway, just Jools didn't know.

 

On the other side of Ashford, out in the countryside, and just below the treeline of Kings Wood, at the end of a dead end lane next to a manor house, is Boughton Aluph.

 

I knew it would be locked, but also knew there was details of a keyholder. So, once we arrived, I called the number, was given directions, and off we set to Boughton Leas.

 

Up a six footer up the down, right at a junction, then right at the first cottage, and the old lady was waiting.

 

We reversed out, turned round and went back to the church, parking in the entrance to a field.

 

Beds jammed with Winter Aconites abounded, but i only had eyes for the church, up the steep path and through the old swing gate.

 

There is no path to the Priest's door, just a track of flattened grass. I went down the stops, inserted the key and turned, the door moved, then opened.

 

Inside is a large a airy space, well lit through windows with little stained glass. Entry is via the vestry in the north chapel, so I walk out into the Chancel, ad look back at the large Nave, filled with chairs.

 

The walls are sparsely adorned, with the memorials that are there as listed by Hasted below. Amazing to think of details recorded 220 years ago are still there and recognisable by his description.

 

The church has a new organ, which I am told sounds splendid in the summer when there are regular concerts as part of Stour Valley Music group.

 

Beside the organ I see the wall painting of The Trinity, though it is hard to see it all other than via an oblique view as the organ is in the way.

 

Ancient glass fills the upper traceries of the east window, most in good condition. At the west in, shards and remnants make more of an abstract display.

 

After half an hour I was done, so leave a donation and exit the church, locking the door behind me.

 

We took the key back, then was the question: shall we have lunch out?

 

We shall.

 

But where.

 

I mention the New Flying Horse in Wye, which is three miles away across the Stour and railway. So off we go. At the level crossing we see the new barriers, which replaced the manual gates a couple of years back, then up through the village, past the mad parking near the market, and along a back street to the pub.

 

It was five minutes past opening time.

 

They had a table, and at least three menus. We both chose steakburgers, and so waited and people-watched until the food arrived.

 

It was nothing extraordinary, but that's not what you want in a burger: just cheese, bacon and pickles. And lots of crispy fries.

 

We pay, and leave. Jools had accidentally ordered a pint of cider, so I drove back, back over Wye Down, to Stone Street then to Bridge and onto the A2.

 

Traffic was very light, we got back at two, just in time to watch the end of the lunchtime games and make a brew before taking my place beside Scully on the sofa.

 

Where I then fell asleep for half an hour.

 

Norwich only drew at Hull, a team we put to the sword in the warm autumn sunshine back in September.

 

Bacon butties for supper, then settle down to watch Palace v Everton, and it was the Toffees who win again under their old new manager, David Moyes.

 

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A connoisseur's church built in the thirteenth century by a man called Adulphus to replace a Saxon church. About a hundred years later the church was substantially enlarged under Sir Thomas Aldon, a courtier of Edward III. Stained glass shields of the King and associated Kentish families still survive as part of the fantastic East window where the upper lights actually follow the curve of both the external arch and the arch of the three main lights below. How fine it must have looked when completely glazed in stained glass. The south porch has a rare fireplace - showing that it may have been adapted to cater for pilgrims on their way to the shrine of Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. Of the same date is the fine screen and possibly the floor tiles. In the north transept is a good example of late fifteenth century wall painting. It depicts the Trinity and is set in a series of decorative frames. Regrettably the dove - central to the story as representative of the Holy Spirit - has long disappeared.

 

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Boughton+Aluph

 

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BOUGHTON ALUPH

IS the next parish westward from that of Wye. It is frequently spelt Bocton, and is written in Domesday, Boltune, and has the addition of Aluph to it from one of its antient owners, Alulphus de Bocton, as well as to distinguish it from the other parishes of the same name in this county, and in a will, proved anno 1416, in the Prerogative-office, Canterbury, I find it mentioned by the name of the parish of Boughton Aluph, otherwise called Boughton in the Bushe. There are four boroughs in it, Goatlands, Wilmington, Dane, and Hebbinge.

 

THE PARISH lies about twelve miles distant both from Canterbury and Faversham, and about four from Ashford, the high road from Canterbury to the latter goes along the foot of the hills, near the eastern boundary of the parish, where the soil is chalky; close on the east side of the road is Buckwell-house, great part of which has been some time since pulled down, but there is sufficient remaining, with the offices and walls about it, to shew it was once a seat of some note, and at no great distance on the hill, high above the road, is the church and court-lodge. Above this, still further westward, is much open, rough ground, called the Warren, on a chalky soil, reaching beyond the high Faversham road, the new inclosure in Eastwell park adjoining to it, being within this parish; within the northern boundary of it there is a parcel of woodland, about one hundred acres lying in Kingswood, just above Socombe down; it was formerly part of Barton manor, and was sold off from it by Mr. Breton a few years before he sold that manor to Sir Robert Furnese, bart, by whose daughter Catherine it went in marriage to the earl of Guildford, whose grandson George-Augustus, earl of Guildford, is now possessed of it. By the pales of Eastwell park, at a small distance from the mansion of it, the last mentioned road descends below the hill to low ground, and mostly a gravelly soil; on it is the village, situated round a green, called Boughton lees, the west side only of which is in this parish. At the southern boundary of the parish, on the Ashford road, is the borough and hamlet of Wilmington, the antient mansion of which stood close to the road, it has been long since pulled down. It stood within a moat, which is still very entire, its area containing half an acre of ground; many old foundations have been dug up round about it within memory.

 

There is a fair held on the lees on Midsummer day for toys and pedlary.

 

IN THE TIME of the Saxons this place was in the possession of earl Godwin, who was succeeded in it by his eldest son earl Harold, afterwards king of England, on whose death in the fatal battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror having obtained the crown, seized on all the late king's estates, and gave this of Boughton to Eustance, earl of Bologne, who had followed him over hither, as a reward for his services; and he possessed it in the 15th year of that reign, at the time the survey of Domesday was taken, in which it is thus entered, under the title of Terra Comitis Eustachii, i. e. the land of earl Eustace.

 

In the lath of Wivarlet, in Wihundred, the earl holds Boltune. Earl Goduin held it, and it was taxed at seven sulings, then and now. The arable land is thirty-three carucartes. In demesne there are three, and sixty-seven villeins, with five borders having thirty carucates. There is a church, and seventeen servants, and two mills of seven shillings and two-pence, and twenty-six acres of meadow. Wood for the pannage of two hundred hogs. In the time of king Edward the Confessor it was worth twenty pounds, and afterwards thirty pounds, now forty pounds.

 

Of the earl of Bologne this manor was held by a family who assumed their name from it. Alulphus de Boughton held it in the reign of king John, as appears by the Testa de Nevil, of the honor of Bologne. Stephen de Bocton died possessed of this manor in the 14th year of Edward I. holding it in capite by knight's service; together with its member, Hethenden, in Kent, and Orset, in Essex, both escheats of that honor. Soon after which it passed into the family of Burghersh, and Robert de Burghersh, constable of Dover castle, died possessed of this manor of Bocton Olaus in the 34th year of that reign, whose son Stephen, in the 1st year of Edward II obtained a charter of free-warren in all his demesne lands within it. To him succeeded Bartholomew, lord Bughersh, constable of Dover Castle, lord warden, and chamberlain of the king's household. In the 12th, and in the 16th years of Edward III. he had the charter of free-warren renewed for all his lands. (fn. 1) His son Bartholomew, lord Burghersh, about the 43d year of king Edward III. passed away this manor by sale, with much other land in this county and in Warwickshire, to Sir Walter de Paveley, K.G. who spelt his name both Paveley and Pavalli, and bore for his arms, Azure, a cross story, or, as they are now on the roof of Canterbury cloisters. After the death of whose grandson Walter, in the 4th year of king Richard II. it was found by inquisition, that this manor, with the advowson of the church of Bocton Aluph, descended by the entail of it to Thomas de Aldon, as his next heir, who became accordingly possessed of it, and afterwards alienated it to Sir Thomas Trivet, whose widow Elizabeth died possessed of it in the 12th year of king Henry VI. and was succeeded by Elizabeth, then wife of Edward Nevill, lord Bergavenny, fourth son of Ralph, earl of Westmoreland; as her next heir, and the entitled her husband above-mentioned to the possession of it. After her death he remarried Catherine, daughter of Sir Robert Howard, and died anno 19 Edward IV. being then possessed as tenant by the courtesy of England, of this manor among others of the inheritance of Elizabeth his first wife. His eldest son Sir George Nevill, lord Bergavenny; seems to have sold this manor to Sir Thomas Kempe, of Ollantigh, whose youngest son Thomas, bishop of London, died possessed of it in the 4th year of king Henry VII. leaving his nephew Sir Thomas Kempe his next heir, whose descendant Sir Thomas Kempe, of Ollantigh, about the latter and of queen Elizabeth's reign, alienated it to Finch, of Eastwell, in whose successors, earls of Winchelsea, it descended down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who, by will in 1769, devised this manor to George Finch Hatton, esq. of Eastwell, the present owner of it.

 

SEATON is a small manor in this parish, which was held by knight's service in grand sergeantry, to provide one man, called a vautrer, to lead three greyhounds when the king should go into Gascony, until he had worn out a pair of shoes of the price of four-pence, bought at the king's cost; (fn. 2) by which service John de Criol, younger son of Bertram, held it at his death in the 48th year of king Henry III. whose grand-daughter Joane becoming heir to her brother's inheritance, who died s. p. she carried this manor in marriage to Sir Richard de Rokesle, who was found to hold it by the like service, in the 11th year of king Edward II. His eldest daughter and coheir Agnes married Thomas de Poynings, and entitled him to the possession of it. In whose descendants it continued till Alianore, daughter of Richard de Poynings, marrying Henry, lord Percy, eldest son of Henry, earl of Northamberland, he, in her right, became entitled to this manor among her other great inheritance in this county and elsewhere; and in his descendants this manor continued down to Henry, VIII. earl of Northamberland, (fn. 3) who, in the 23d year of Henry VIII. conveyed it to feoffees, who soon afterwards passed it away by sale to Sir Christopher Hales, afterwards knighted, and the king's attorney-general, whose lands were disgavelled by the act of the 31st year of Henry VIII. He died possessed of it in the 33d year of that reign, holding it of the king, as of his castle of Dover, by knight's service. He left three daughters his coheirs, who joined in the sale of it to Sir Thomas Moyle, of Eastwell, and chancellor of the king's court of augmentation, whose daughter and coheir Catherine, carried it in marriage to Sir Thomas Finch, of Eastwell, (fn. 4) in whose descendants, earls of Winchelsea, this manor continued down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who dying in 1769, without male issue, gave it, together with his other estates in this county, to his nephew George Finch Hatton, esq. now of Eastwell, the present proprietor of it.

 

BARTON is a manor here, the mansion of which stood on the west side of the Ashford road, in the borough of Socombe, almost opposite to Buckwell, but it has been pulled down some years, and there is now only a barn on the scite of it. It was once part of the possessions of the family of Leyborne, of Leyborne, one of whom, Roger de Leyborne, died possessed of it in the 56th year of king Henry III. and in this name it continued till Juliana de Leyborne, daughter of Thomas, became the sole heir of their possessions, from the greatness of which, she was usually stiled the Infanta of Kent, who, though she had three husbands, all of whom she survived, yet she died s. p. in the 41st year of king Edward III. (fn. 5) Upon which this manor, among the rest of her estates, escheated to the crown, there being no one found who could make claim to her estates, by direct or even by collateral alliance. After which this manor continued in the crown, till king Richard II. vested it in feoffees in trust, towards the endowment of St. Stephen's chapel, at Westminister, which he had in his 22d year completed and made collegiate, and had the year before granted to the dean and canons of this manor, among others, in mortmain. In which situation it continued till the 1st year of king Edward VI. when this college was, with all its possessions, surrendered into the king's hands, who soon afterwards granted this manor to Sir Thomas Moyle, of Eastwell, and he parted with it to his brother Walter Moyle, esq. who afterwards resided at Buckwell, in this parish; and in his descendants, resident at Buckwell, this manor continued, till John Moyle, esq. of Buckwell, leaving Mary his sole daughter and heir, she carried it in marriage to Robert Breton, esq. of the Elmes, near Dover, who died possessed of it in 1708, and his son, Moyle Breton, esq. of Kennington, about the year 1730, sold this manor to Thomas May, afterwards Knight, esq. of Godmersham, whose son Tho. Knight, esq. of Godmersham, dying in 1794, s.p. gave it by will to his widow Mrs. Catherine Knight, but she has since resigned it to Edward Austen, esq. of Godmersham park, who is the present owner of it.

 

BUCKWELL, which was once accounted a manor, is situated at a small distance from Barton last-mentioned, though on the opposite side of the road. It was, in the reign of the Conqueror, part of those estates which were given to William de Arsick, for his assistance in the desence of Dover castle, and made up, with them, the barony of Arsick, being held of it, as one knight's fee, by barony, as of the castle of Dover, to which it owed ward and service. Of him and his heirs this manor was again held by the family of Leyborne, one of whom, Roger de Leyborne, died possessed of it in the 56th year of Henry III. and was succeeded in it by William his son; but when it passed from this name, I have not found; but soon afterwards, the manor of Buckwell, and the mansion of it, seem to have been Separated, and in the possession of different owners; for the manor itself became the property of Robert de Burghersh, constable of Dover castle, and likewise lord warden, whose descendant Bartholomew, lord Burghersh, about the 43d year of king Edward III. conveyed it, with other land in this parish and elsewhere, to Sir Walter de Paveley, one of whose descendants passed it away to Sir Robert Belknap, chief justice of the common pleas, who in the 11th year of that reign was attainted, and banished to Ireland, and though he was afterwards permitted to return in the 20th year of it, yet his attainder still continued, and his lands remained forfeited as before, (fn. 6) and this manor remained in the crown till that king vested it in feoffees in trust, towards the endowment of St. Stephen's chapel, in Westminster, in the possession of the dean and canons, of which it remained till the suppression of that college in the 1st year of king Edward VI. when it came into the hands of the crown, whence it was granted to John Moyle, whose ancestors, resident at the mansion of Buckwell, had likewise been leffees of this manor under the deans and canons for some generations.

 

Mention has been made above, that the mansion of Buckwell had, before the reign of king Edward I. been separated from the manor itself; accordingly I find, that in the 8th year of king Edward III. William de la Hay died possessed of it, and that soon afterwards it became the property of a family who assumed their name from it, being usually called Bekewell. Henry de Bekewell appears by the escheat-rolls to have died possessed of it in the 10th year of that reign, as did his descendant, of the same name, in the 17th year of king Richard II. After this family was extinct here, this seat became the property of Wode, and remained so till the 34th year of Henry VI. and then Robert Wode passed it away by sale to Walter Moyle, ancestor of John Moyle, esq. of this place, who had the grant of the manor of Buckwell from king Edward VI. as be fore-mentioned. The Moyles were descended from Thomas Moyle, of Bodmin, in Cornwall, whose grandson Sir Walter, third son of Henry, was of Eastwell, and purchaser of this estate, as before-mentioned. His eldest son John had several sons, of whom John was father of Ralph Moyle, who died at Eastwell in 1582. Walter was of Buckwell, and ancestor of the Moyles of this place; and Thomas, who was knighted, and was of Eastwell, left two daughters his coheirs, married to Finch and Kempe. They bore for their arms, Gules, a mule passant, within a bordure, argent. There are many memorials of them in both the chancels of this church. (fn. 7) In the descendants of John Moyle, resident at Buckwell, this manor and seat continued till Mary, sole daughter and heir of John Moyle, esq. carried both of them in marriage to Robert Breton, esq. of the Elmes, near Dover, whose son Moyle Breton, esq. of Kennington, about the year 1730, being enabled so to do by an act passed for this purpose, sold them, with other adjoining estates, to Thomas May, afterwards Knight, esq. of Godmersham, and his only son and heir Thomas Knight, esq. of that place, on his death, s. p. in 1794, gave them by will to his widow, Mrs. Catherine Knight, who likewise resigned them to Edward Austen, esq. of Godmersham, the present owner of them.

 

Wilmington, called likewise antiently Wilmingdon, is a manor which lies at the southern part of this parish, on the Ashford road likewise. It gives name to the borough in which it stands, and to the hamlet of houses which stand round about it. Robert de Wilmington held this manor in the reign of Henry III. in grand sergeantry, of the honor of Bolegne, by the service of being the earl's cook, it being then valued at two marcs. His descendant Bertram de Wilmington, died possessed of it in the 12th year of Edward II. when it was found by inquisition, that he held it of the king in capite, by the service of finding for the king one pot-hook for his meat, whenever he should come within the manor of Boughton Aluph. (fn. 8) His descendant, of the same name, died possessed of it in the 6th year of king Henry V. After which it came into the possession of John Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, who was possessed of it in the 2d year of Edward IV. On his death the great inheritance of the Mowbrays came to the descendants of his two sisters and coheirs, and in the division of it John, lord Howard, in right of his mother Margaret, the eldest of them, became entitled to this manor. He was one of the most illustrious noblemen of his time, and having continued faithful to the house of York, he remained no less stedfast to the interest of king Richard III. who created him duke of Norsolk, earl marshal and lord admiral of England. But he did not enjoy these honors long; for he was next year slain in the battle of Bosworth, fighting on the king's behalf, and in the 1st year of Henry VII. he was attainted in parliament, and this manor, among his other possessions, became confiscated to the crown; (fn. 9) whence it was afterwards granted to Moyle, in which name it continued till the beginning of Edward VI.'s reign, when by Catherine, daughter and coheir of Sir Thomas Moyle, of Eastwell, it went in marriage to Sir Thomas Finch, of that parish, who died in 1563, and she remarrying with Nicholas St. Leger, esq. of Beamstone, in Westwell, entitled him to it for her life. She died in 1586, on which it came to her son Sir Moyle Finch, bart. in whose descendants, earl of Winchelsea, it descended down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who at his death in 1769, devised it to his nephew George Finch Hatton, esq. now of Eastwell, the present owner of it.

 

But Part Of The Demesne Lands of this manor were sold off, about the year 1713, to the Rev. Hilkiah Bedford, publisher of the bereditary Right of the Crown of England asserted, whose eldest son William Bedford M.D. whose daughter Elizabeth marrying Mr. Claxton, of Shirley, in Surry, has entitled him to the possession of it.

 

ANOTHER PART of this estate, now called Little Wilmington, in the reign of king Henry VI. was in the possession of Richard Sandys, who alienated it to John Barough, who resided at it, and died possessed of it in the 1st year of king Edward IV. One of his descendants, Richard Barrowe, resided here in the reigns of king Elizabeth and James I. and died in the 6th year of the latter, leaving three sons, Robert, Richard, and William, to which last he devised his house and lands in Borden, and from him descended the Barrows of that parish. To Robert Barrow, his eldest son, he devised this estate of Little Wilmington, and in his descendants it continued, till it was at length sold to Knott, and from that name again to Dr. William Egerton, prebendary of Canterbury, who died possessed of it in 1728, leaving two daughters his coheirs, and his widow surviving, upon whose death it came to Jemima, widow of Edward Bridges, esq. of Wotton, one of the above-mentioned coheirs, and William Hammond, esq. of St. Albans, the eldest son of William Hammond, esq. of that place, by Charlotte the other coheir; and upon a division made, this estate was allotted to Mrs. Bridges above-mentioned, now of Canterbury, and she is the present possessor of it.

 

MARDOL MANOR is the last place to be mentioned in this parish, lying on the south side of it. This manor was antiently the patrimony of the Corbies in which it continued till Robert Corbie, in the reign of king Richard II. leaving an only daughter and heir Joane, she carried it, among the rest of her inheritance, to Sir Nicholas Wotton, whose descendant Thomas Wotton, esq. in the reign of queen Elizabeth, passed it away by sale to Sprott, from which name, in the reign of king Charles I. it was alienated to Thomas Finch, earl of Winchelsea, in whose descendants it continued down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who in 1769, gave it by will, with the rest of his estates in this county, to his nephew George Finch Hatton, esq. now the present owner of it.

 

Charities.

MR. JOHN BOUGHTON, vicar, left to this parish by will, in 1642, 30s. per annum to such poor as had great charge of children, aged and incapable to work, to be distributed on the Thursday in Whitsun-week; and to the churchwardens and overseers, 10s. per annum, for a sermon to be preached on that day, to be paid out of house and land on Boughton lees.

 

MR. THOMAS KEEPS left by will in 1780, 20s. per annum to the use of the poor, out of a field in Great Chart, rented at 6l. per annum, the remainder of the rent being left to five other parishes.

 

MR. WILLIAM CROW left by will in 1770, to this parish, the sum of 90l. to be put into the public funds, the amount of the profits of it to be yearly distributed by the owners of Eastwell-place, among such honest and well disposed poor aged men and women, especially widows, as they should consider real objects of charity; but not to persons receiving alms, in relief of the parish.

 

There is an alms-house belonging to this parish, on Boughtonlees, containing six dwellings.

 

The poor constantly relieved are about 15, casually 20.

 

BOUGHTON ALUPH is within the ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION of the diocese of Canterbury, and deanry of Bridge.

 

The church, which is dedicated to All Saints, is large and handsome, built of slint, with ashlar stone to the doors, windows, and quoins. It consists of three isles and two chancels. The steeple is a large low tower, standing on four pillars in the middle of it. There are five bells in it, and at the south-east corner, adjoining to the tower, is a large square addition, in which is a stone stair-case. Both the chancels did belong to the Buckwell estate; but the family of Breton having buried in both since their sale of it, without Mr. Knight's permission, he refused to repair them, and they are now repaired by Mr. Breton. In the great chancel, within the rails, is a monument for Thomas Austen, esq. obt. 1637. In this and the north chancel are many gravestones of the Moiles and Bretons. In the north chancel is a handsome monument of marble, for Amy, wife of Josias Clerk, gent. of Essex, daughter of John Moyle, esq. of Buckwell, obt. 1631, having the effigies of her lying at full length, and of her three children kneeling at her head and feet, in full proportion, under a canopy. In the middle isle is a memorial for John Mascall, esq. obt. 1769; arms, Two bars, over all, three escutcheons ermine, impaling a saltier, and on it a crescent, for difference; and there are memorials for others likewise of the same family.

 

The church of Boughton Aluph, as has been already mentioned before, was antiently an appendage to the manor, and continued so in the 4th year of Richard II. when Sir Walter Pavely died possessed of the same, and it was found that Sir Thomas de Aldon was his next heir. How long afterwards it continued in his heirs I have not found; but in the reign of Henry VI. the advowson of this rectory was become the property of cardinal John Kempe, archbishop of York, who settled it on his new-founded college of Wye, and in the 29th year of that reign the master and chaplains of it had the king's licence to receive this advowson from the cardinal, and to appropriate the rectory of it to themselves; (fn. 10) and a vicarage was endowed here. In which situation it remained till the suppression of the college, in the 36th year of Henry VIII. when it was surrendered into the king's hands, who that year granted this church, with the presentation of the vicarage of it, among other premises, to Walter Bucler, esq. to hold in capite, with certain provisos for the maintenance of the curates and schoolmaster of Wye; which grant, on his non-performance of these conditions, became forfeited, and king Charles I. in his 2d and 5th years, granted the same premises, with the proviso for the payment of certain stipends to the before-mentioned curate and schoolmaster, to Robert Maxwell, from whose heirs this rectory and advowson was afterwards sold to Moyle, of Buckwell, in which name it continued till Mary, daughter and sole heir of John Moyle, esq. of Buckwell, carried them in marriage to Robert Breton, esq. of the Elmes, near Dover, who died possessed of them in 1708, and his great grandson the Rev. Moyle Breton, of Kennington, is the present owner of the parsonage appropriate of Boughton, with the advowson of the vicarage of this church, who pays twenty pounds per annum from it towards the stipends of the curate and schoolmaster of Wye, as stipulated in Robert Maxwell's patent, the several premises granted in it being now in different hands as has been already more fully mentioned before.

 

It is valued in the king's books at 6l. 5s. the yearly tenths being 12s. 6d. but it is now of the clear yearly certified value (delivered in 1752) of 58l. 6s. 10d.

 

In 1578 here were communicants one hundred and fifty-four; in 1640, one hundred and seventy-seven. It is now worth about eighty pounds per annum. There are twenty three acres of glebe belonging to it.

 

There was a composition in 1305 entered into between the rector of Westwell and Stephen de Wilmington, rector of this church, concerning the tithes of the hamlets of Shotingdon, Chilberton, and Wike.

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol7/pp384-398

In 563 AD, Colmcille and 12 companions crossed the Irish Sea in a coracle, which is similar to a curragh, and landed on a deserted island now known as Iona (Holy Island). It was here, on this tiny isle off the coast of Scotland, that he began his work. Eventually, Iona became the heart of Celtic Christianity and its existence was one of the strongest influences in the conversion of the Picts, Scots, and Northern English.

From Iona, numerous other settlements were founded, and Columcille himself penetrated the wildest glens of Scotland and the farthest Outer Hebrides. He established the Caledonian Church and it is said that he anointed King Aidan of Argyll upon the famous stone of Scone, which is now in Westminster Abbey. The Pictish King Brude and his people were also converted by Columcille's many miracles, including driving away a water "monster" from the River Ness with the Sign of the Cross.

Even though he was far away in Scotland, Columcille appears to have retained control over his monasteries in Ireland. In 580, he returned to his native land to take part in the assembly of Druim-Cetta in Ulster, where he mediated about the obligations of the Irish in Scotland to those in Ireland. It was decided that they should furnish a fleet, but not an army, for the Irish high-king. During the same assembly, Columcille, who was a bard himself, intervened to effectively swing the nation away from its declared intention of suppressing the Bardic Order. Columcille persuaded them that the whole future of Gaelic culture demanded that the scholarship of the bards be preserved. His prestige was such that his views prevailed and assured the presence of educated laity in Irish Christian society.

Of the man himself and his personality, it is said that he was "well-formed, with a powerful frame; his skin was white, his face broad and fair and radiant, lit up with large, gray, luminous eyes...". Saint Adamnan, his biographer wrote of him: "He had the face of an angel; he was of an excellent nature, polished in speech, holy in deed, great in counsel... loving unto all."

It is clear that Columcille's temperament changed dramatically during his life. Although his name means "dove", in his early years, he had a quick temper and was extremely stern with his monks; gradually, he softened and later in life, he was as gentle toward them as he had always been with children and animals. Columcille had great qualities, but ultimately, his chief virtue lay in the conquest of his own passionate nature and in the love and sympathy that flowed from his eager and radiant spirit.

A poet and an artist who did illumination — perhaps some of those in the Book of Kells itself—his skill as a scribe can be seen in the Cathach of Columba (Columcille) at the Irish Academy. The oldest surviving example of Irish illumination, it was eventually enshrined in silver and bronze and venerated in churches.

On June 8, 597, Columcille was copying out the psalms once again. At the verse, "They that love the Lord shall lack no good thing," he stopped, and said that his cousin, Saint Baithin must do the rest. Columcille died the next day at the foot of the altar. He was first buried at Iona, but 200 years later the Danes destroyed the monastery. His relics were taken to Dunkeld in 849.

The year Columcille died was the same year in which Saint Gregory the Great sent Saint Augustine of Canterbury to convert England. Perhaps because the Roman party gained ascendancy at the Synod of Whitby, much of the credit that belongs to Saint Columcille and his followers for the conversion of Britain has been attributed to St. Augustine. It should not be forgotten that both saints played pivotal roles in spreading Christianity throughout the British Isles.

In art, Saint Columcille is sometimes depicted with a basket of bread and an orb of the world in a ray of light. He might also be pictured with an old, white horse. He is venerated in Dunkeld, Ireland and also as the Apostle of Scotland. His feast day is June 9th, the day on which he died.

"Alone with none but Thee, my God,

I journey on my way;

What need I fear when Thou art near,

Oh King of night and day?

More safe am I within Thy hand

Than if a host did round me stand."

--Attributed to Saint Columcille.

  

Not so long ago, the main road from Dover to Sandwich passed right through the centre of Easty. Its narrow roads lined with parked cars must have been quite a bottle neck. But now the main road goes round and the cars can park was their owners want.

 

I visited Eastry many years ago, early in the Kent church project. So I am revisiting those first churches to see what I missed now I have a little knowledge of church architecture.

 

We park in the centre on the main road and walk down the dead end street to the church. It looks fine in the spring sunshine, flints glistening. It sits surrounded by gfand houses, most of which are listed.

 

Entrance is via a unique porch in the west end of the church, under the tower, where a porch has been fashioned from carved wood and leaded lights.

 

Upon entering you are greeted by the glory of the church, the chancel arch festooned with panels showing four different designs, but my eye is taken by the two quatrefoil cut outs either side.

 

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Set away from the main street but on one of the earliest sites in the village, flint-built Eastry church has an over restored appearance externally but this gives way to a noteworthy interior. Built in the early thirteenth century by its patrons, Christ Church Canterbury, it was always designed to be a statement of both faith and power. The nave has a clerestory above round piers whilst the east nave wall has a pair of quatrefoils pierced through into the chancel. However this feature pales into insignificance when one sees what stands between them - a square panel containing 35 round paintings in medallions. There are four deigns including the Lily for Our Lady; a dove; Lion; Griffin. They would have formed a backdrop to the Rood which would have been supported on a beam the corbels of which survive below the paintings. On the centre pier of the south aisle is a very rare feature - a beautifully inscribed perpetual calendar or `Dominical Circle` to help find the Dominical letter of the year. Dating from the fourteenth century it divides the calendar into a sequence of 28 years. The reredos is an alabaster structure dating from the Edwardian period - a rather out of place object in a church of this form, but a good piece of work in its own right. On the west wall is a good early 19th century Royal Arms with hatchments on either side and there are many good monuments both ledger slabs and hanging tablets. Of the latter the finest commemorates John Harvey who died in 1794. It shows his ship the Brunswick fighting with all guns blazing with the French ship the Vengeur. John Bacon carved the Elder this detailed piece of work.

 

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Eastry

 

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Above the Chancel Arch, enclosed within a rectangular frame, are rows of seven "medallion" wall paintings; the lower group was discovered in 1857 and the rest in 1903. They remained in a rather dilapidated state until the Canterbury Cathedral Wall Paintings Department brought them back to life.

 

The medallions are evidently of the 13th Century, having been painted while the mortar was still wet. Each medallion contains one of four motifs:

 

The trefoil flower, pictured left, is perhaps a symbol of the Blessed Virgin Mary to whom the church is dedicated; or symbolic of Christ.

 

The lion; symbolic of the Resurrection

  

Doves, either singly, or in pairs, represent the Holy Spirit

  

The Griffin represents evil, over which victory is won by the power of the Resurrection and the courage of the Christian.

 

www.ewbchurches.org.uk/eastrychurchhistory.htm

 

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Its beginning to feel a little like Spring.

 

Even if the temperature didn't get above 4 degrees today, the sun did shine, and there was little breeze. And on our travels through the Kent countryside, spring flowers were everywhere to be seen.

 

We got up at half six when the water heater fired up, fed the cats, gave Scully her jab and made coffee.

 

Then to Whitfield for some hunting and gathering. Jools needing a cider restock and then the rest of the stuff we get through each week.

 

At least shopping so early means missing most of the crazies, and we see the same faces each week, though not well enough to speak, maybe the nod of a head.

 

Back home for breakfast of fruit and tea, put the shopping away and ignore the meows for more food.

 

And off out for some gentle churchcrawling. Our first target is perhaps the last substantial Norman church in east Kent I had yet to visit: Great Chart.

 

Great Chart is now a suburb of Ashford, which is spreading westwards towards the Romney Marsh. This means navigating the series of manic roundabouts onto the A28, past Waitrose and out of town, turning off on about the tenth roundabout, and through the village, no new builds here.

 

And on top of the hill is the church, which Google maps assured me would be open at ten. It was twenty five to eleven, so safe as milk?

 

No. It was locked, with no details of keyholders. So I took some exterior shots and we walked back to the car.

 

I had a back up. We were going here anyway, just Jools didn't know.

 

On the other side of Ashford, out in the countryside, and just below the treeline of Kings Wood, at the end of a dead end lane next to a manor house, is Boughton Aluph.

 

I knew it would be locked, but also knew there was details of a keyholder. So, once we arrived, I called the number, was given directions, and off we set to Boughton Leas.

 

Up a six footer up the down, right at a junction, then right at the first cottage, and the old lady was waiting.

 

We reversed out, turned round and went back to the church, parking in the entrance to a field.

 

Beds jammed with Winter Aconites abounded, but i only had eyes for the church, up the steep path and through the old swing gate.

 

There is no path to the Priest's door, just a track of flattened grass. I went down the stops, inserted the key and turned, the door moved, then opened.

 

Inside is a large a airy space, well lit through windows with little stained glass. Entry is via the vestry in the north chapel, so I walk out into the Chancel, ad look back at the large Nave, filled with chairs.

 

The walls are sparsely adorned, with the memorials that are there as listed by Hasted below. Amazing to think of details recorded 220 years ago are still there and recognisable by his description.

 

The church has a new organ, which I am told sounds splendid in the summer when there are regular concerts as part of Stour Valley Music group.

 

Beside the organ I see the wall painting of The Trinity, though it is hard to see it all other than via an oblique view as the organ is in the way.

 

Ancient glass fills the upper traceries of the east window, most in good condition. At the west in, shards and remnants make more of an abstract display.

 

After half an hour I was done, so leave a donation and exit the church, locking the door behind me.

 

We took the key back, then was the question: shall we have lunch out?

 

We shall.

 

But where.

 

I mention the New Flying Horse in Wye, which is three miles away across the Stour and railway. So off we go. At the level crossing we see the new barriers, which replaced the manual gates a couple of years back, then up through the village, past the mad parking near the market, and along a back street to the pub.

 

It was five minutes past opening time.

 

They had a table, and at least three menus. We both chose steakburgers, and so waited and people-watched until the food arrived.

 

It was nothing extraordinary, but that's not what you want in a burger: just cheese, bacon and pickles. And lots of crispy fries.

 

We pay, and leave. Jools had accidentally ordered a pint of cider, so I drove back, back over Wye Down, to Stone Street then to Bridge and onto the A2.

 

Traffic was very light, we got back at two, just in time to watch the end of the lunchtime games and make a brew before taking my place beside Scully on the sofa.

 

Where I then fell asleep for half an hour.

 

Norwich only drew at Hull, a team we put to the sword in the warm autumn sunshine back in September.

 

Bacon butties for supper, then settle down to watch Palace v Everton, and it was the Toffees who win again under their old new manager, David Moyes.

 

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A connoisseur's church built in the thirteenth century by a man called Adulphus to replace a Saxon church. About a hundred years later the church was substantially enlarged under Sir Thomas Aldon, a courtier of Edward III. Stained glass shields of the King and associated Kentish families still survive as part of the fantastic East window where the upper lights actually follow the curve of both the external arch and the arch of the three main lights below. How fine it must have looked when completely glazed in stained glass. The south porch has a rare fireplace - showing that it may have been adapted to cater for pilgrims on their way to the shrine of Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. Of the same date is the fine screen and possibly the floor tiles. In the north transept is a good example of late fifteenth century wall painting. It depicts the Trinity and is set in a series of decorative frames. Regrettably the dove - central to the story as representative of the Holy Spirit - has long disappeared.

 

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Boughton+Aluph

 

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BOUGHTON ALUPH

IS the next parish westward from that of Wye. It is frequently spelt Bocton, and is written in Domesday, Boltune, and has the addition of Aluph to it from one of its antient owners, Alulphus de Bocton, as well as to distinguish it from the other parishes of the same name in this county, and in a will, proved anno 1416, in the Prerogative-office, Canterbury, I find it mentioned by the name of the parish of Boughton Aluph, otherwise called Boughton in the Bushe. There are four boroughs in it, Goatlands, Wilmington, Dane, and Hebbinge.

 

THE PARISH lies about twelve miles distant both from Canterbury and Faversham, and about four from Ashford, the high road from Canterbury to the latter goes along the foot of the hills, near the eastern boundary of the parish, where the soil is chalky; close on the east side of the road is Buckwell-house, great part of which has been some time since pulled down, but there is sufficient remaining, with the offices and walls about it, to shew it was once a seat of some note, and at no great distance on the hill, high above the road, is the church and court-lodge. Above this, still further westward, is much open, rough ground, called the Warren, on a chalky soil, reaching beyond the high Faversham road, the new inclosure in Eastwell park adjoining to it, being within this parish; within the northern boundary of it there is a parcel of woodland, about one hundred acres lying in Kingswood, just above Socombe down; it was formerly part of Barton manor, and was sold off from it by Mr. Breton a few years before he sold that manor to Sir Robert Furnese, bart, by whose daughter Catherine it went in marriage to the earl of Guildford, whose grandson George-Augustus, earl of Guildford, is now possessed of it. By the pales of Eastwell park, at a small distance from the mansion of it, the last mentioned road descends below the hill to low ground, and mostly a gravelly soil; on it is the village, situated round a green, called Boughton lees, the west side only of which is in this parish. At the southern boundary of the parish, on the Ashford road, is the borough and hamlet of Wilmington, the antient mansion of which stood close to the road, it has been long since pulled down. It stood within a moat, which is still very entire, its area containing half an acre of ground; many old foundations have been dug up round about it within memory.

 

There is a fair held on the lees on Midsummer day for toys and pedlary.

 

IN THE TIME of the Saxons this place was in the possession of earl Godwin, who was succeeded in it by his eldest son earl Harold, afterwards king of England, on whose death in the fatal battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror having obtained the crown, seized on all the late king's estates, and gave this of Boughton to Eustance, earl of Bologne, who had followed him over hither, as a reward for his services; and he possessed it in the 15th year of that reign, at the time the survey of Domesday was taken, in which it is thus entered, under the title of Terra Comitis Eustachii, i. e. the land of earl Eustace.

 

In the lath of Wivarlet, in Wihundred, the earl holds Boltune. Earl Goduin held it, and it was taxed at seven sulings, then and now. The arable land is thirty-three carucartes. In demesne there are three, and sixty-seven villeins, with five borders having thirty carucates. There is a church, and seventeen servants, and two mills of seven shillings and two-pence, and twenty-six acres of meadow. Wood for the pannage of two hundred hogs. In the time of king Edward the Confessor it was worth twenty pounds, and afterwards thirty pounds, now forty pounds.

 

Of the earl of Bologne this manor was held by a family who assumed their name from it. Alulphus de Boughton held it in the reign of king John, as appears by the Testa de Nevil, of the honor of Bologne. Stephen de Bocton died possessed of this manor in the 14th year of Edward I. holding it in capite by knight's service; together with its member, Hethenden, in Kent, and Orset, in Essex, both escheats of that honor. Soon after which it passed into the family of Burghersh, and Robert de Burghersh, constable of Dover castle, died possessed of this manor of Bocton Olaus in the 34th year of that reign, whose son Stephen, in the 1st year of Edward II obtained a charter of free-warren in all his demesne lands within it. To him succeeded Bartholomew, lord Bughersh, constable of Dover Castle, lord warden, and chamberlain of the king's household. In the 12th, and in the 16th years of Edward III. he had the charter of free-warren renewed for all his lands. (fn. 1) His son Bartholomew, lord Burghersh, about the 43d year of king Edward III. passed away this manor by sale, with much other land in this county and in Warwickshire, to Sir Walter de Paveley, K.G. who spelt his name both Paveley and Pavalli, and bore for his arms, Azure, a cross story, or, as they are now on the roof of Canterbury cloisters. After the death of whose grandson Walter, in the 4th year of king Richard II. it was found by inquisition, that this manor, with the advowson of the church of Bocton Aluph, descended by the entail of it to Thomas de Aldon, as his next heir, who became accordingly possessed of it, and afterwards alienated it to Sir Thomas Trivet, whose widow Elizabeth died possessed of it in the 12th year of king Henry VI. and was succeeded by Elizabeth, then wife of Edward Nevill, lord Bergavenny, fourth son of Ralph, earl of Westmoreland; as her next heir, and the entitled her husband above-mentioned to the possession of it. After her death he remarried Catherine, daughter of Sir Robert Howard, and died anno 19 Edward IV. being then possessed as tenant by the courtesy of England, of this manor among others of the inheritance of Elizabeth his first wife. His eldest son Sir George Nevill, lord Bergavenny; seems to have sold this manor to Sir Thomas Kempe, of Ollantigh, whose youngest son Thomas, bishop of London, died possessed of it in the 4th year of king Henry VII. leaving his nephew Sir Thomas Kempe his next heir, whose descendant Sir Thomas Kempe, of Ollantigh, about the latter and of queen Elizabeth's reign, alienated it to Finch, of Eastwell, in whose successors, earls of Winchelsea, it descended down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who, by will in 1769, devised this manor to George Finch Hatton, esq. of Eastwell, the present owner of it.

 

SEATON is a small manor in this parish, which was held by knight's service in grand sergeantry, to provide one man, called a vautrer, to lead three greyhounds when the king should go into Gascony, until he had worn out a pair of shoes of the price of four-pence, bought at the king's cost; (fn. 2) by which service John de Criol, younger son of Bertram, held it at his death in the 48th year of king Henry III. whose grand-daughter Joane becoming heir to her brother's inheritance, who died s. p. she carried this manor in marriage to Sir Richard de Rokesle, who was found to hold it by the like service, in the 11th year of king Edward II. His eldest daughter and coheir Agnes married Thomas de Poynings, and entitled him to the possession of it. In whose descendants it continued till Alianore, daughter of Richard de Poynings, marrying Henry, lord Percy, eldest son of Henry, earl of Northamberland, he, in her right, became entitled to this manor among her other great inheritance in this county and elsewhere; and in his descendants this manor continued down to Henry, VIII. earl of Northamberland, (fn. 3) who, in the 23d year of Henry VIII. conveyed it to feoffees, who soon afterwards passed it away by sale to Sir Christopher Hales, afterwards knighted, and the king's attorney-general, whose lands were disgavelled by the act of the 31st year of Henry VIII. He died possessed of it in the 33d year of that reign, holding it of the king, as of his castle of Dover, by knight's service. He left three daughters his coheirs, who joined in the sale of it to Sir Thomas Moyle, of Eastwell, and chancellor of the king's court of augmentation, whose daughter and coheir Catherine, carried it in marriage to Sir Thomas Finch, of Eastwell, (fn. 4) in whose descendants, earls of Winchelsea, this manor continued down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who dying in 1769, without male issue, gave it, together with his other estates in this county, to his nephew George Finch Hatton, esq. now of Eastwell, the present proprietor of it.

 

BARTON is a manor here, the mansion of which stood on the west side of the Ashford road, in the borough of Socombe, almost opposite to Buckwell, but it has been pulled down some years, and there is now only a barn on the scite of it. It was once part of the possessions of the family of Leyborne, of Leyborne, one of whom, Roger de Leyborne, died possessed of it in the 56th year of king Henry III. and in this name it continued till Juliana de Leyborne, daughter of Thomas, became the sole heir of their possessions, from the greatness of which, she was usually stiled the Infanta of Kent, who, though she had three husbands, all of whom she survived, yet she died s. p. in the 41st year of king Edward III. (fn. 5) Upon which this manor, among the rest of her estates, escheated to the crown, there being no one found who could make claim to her estates, by direct or even by collateral alliance. After which this manor continued in the crown, till king Richard II. vested it in feoffees in trust, towards the endowment of St. Stephen's chapel, at Westminister, which he had in his 22d year completed and made collegiate, and had the year before granted to the dean and canons of this manor, among others, in mortmain. In which situation it continued till the 1st year of king Edward VI. when this college was, with all its possessions, surrendered into the king's hands, who soon afterwards granted this manor to Sir Thomas Moyle, of Eastwell, and he parted with it to his brother Walter Moyle, esq. who afterwards resided at Buckwell, in this parish; and in his descendants, resident at Buckwell, this manor continued, till John Moyle, esq. of Buckwell, leaving Mary his sole daughter and heir, she carried it in marriage to Robert Breton, esq. of the Elmes, near Dover, who died possessed of it in 1708, and his son, Moyle Breton, esq. of Kennington, about the year 1730, sold this manor to Thomas May, afterwards Knight, esq. of Godmersham, whose son Tho. Knight, esq. of Godmersham, dying in 1794, s.p. gave it by will to his widow Mrs. Catherine Knight, but she has since resigned it to Edward Austen, esq. of Godmersham park, who is the present owner of it.

 

BUCKWELL, which was once accounted a manor, is situated at a small distance from Barton last-mentioned, though on the opposite side of the road. It was, in the reign of the Conqueror, part of those estates which were given to William de Arsick, for his assistance in the desence of Dover castle, and made up, with them, the barony of Arsick, being held of it, as one knight's fee, by barony, as of the castle of Dover, to which it owed ward and service. Of him and his heirs this manor was again held by the family of Leyborne, one of whom, Roger de Leyborne, died possessed of it in the 56th year of Henry III. and was succeeded in it by William his son; but when it passed from this name, I have not found; but soon afterwards, the manor of Buckwell, and the mansion of it, seem to have been Separated, and in the possession of different owners; for the manor itself became the property of Robert de Burghersh, constable of Dover castle, and likewise lord warden, whose descendant Bartholomew, lord Burghersh, about the 43d year of king Edward III. conveyed it, with other land in this parish and elsewhere, to Sir Walter de Paveley, one of whose descendants passed it away to Sir Robert Belknap, chief justice of the common pleas, who in the 11th year of that reign was attainted, and banished to Ireland, and though he was afterwards permitted to return in the 20th year of it, yet his attainder still continued, and his lands remained forfeited as before, (fn. 6) and this manor remained in the crown till that king vested it in feoffees in trust, towards the endowment of St. Stephen's chapel, in Westminster, in the possession of the dean and canons, of which it remained till the suppression of that college in the 1st year of king Edward VI. when it came into the hands of the crown, whence it was granted to John Moyle, whose ancestors, resident at the mansion of Buckwell, had likewise been leffees of this manor under the deans and canons for some generations.

 

Mention has been made above, that the mansion of Buckwell had, before the reign of king Edward I. been separated from the manor itself; accordingly I find, that in the 8th year of king Edward III. William de la Hay died possessed of it, and that soon afterwards it became the property of a family who assumed their name from it, being usually called Bekewell. Henry de Bekewell appears by the escheat-rolls to have died possessed of it in the 10th year of that reign, as did his descendant, of the same name, in the 17th year of king Richard II. After this family was extinct here, this seat became the property of Wode, and remained so till the 34th year of Henry VI. and then Robert Wode passed it away by sale to Walter Moyle, ancestor of John Moyle, esq. of this place, who had the grant of the manor of Buckwell from king Edward VI. as be fore-mentioned. The Moyles were descended from Thomas Moyle, of Bodmin, in Cornwall, whose grandson Sir Walter, third son of Henry, was of Eastwell, and purchaser of this estate, as before-mentioned. His eldest son John had several sons, of whom John was father of Ralph Moyle, who died at Eastwell in 1582. Walter was of Buckwell, and ancestor of the Moyles of this place; and Thomas, who was knighted, and was of Eastwell, left two daughters his coheirs, married to Finch and Kempe. They bore for their arms, Gules, a mule passant, within a bordure, argent. There are many memorials of them in both the chancels of this church. (fn. 7) In the descendants of John Moyle, resident at Buckwell, this manor and seat continued till Mary, sole daughter and heir of John Moyle, esq. carried both of them in marriage to Robert Breton, esq. of the Elmes, near Dover, whose son Moyle Breton, esq. of Kennington, about the year 1730, being enabled so to do by an act passed for this purpose, sold them, with other adjoining estates, to Thomas May, afterwards Knight, esq. of Godmersham, and his only son and heir Thomas Knight, esq. of that place, on his death, s. p. in 1794, gave them by will to his widow, Mrs. Catherine Knight, who likewise resigned them to Edward Austen, esq. of Godmersham, the present owner of them.

 

Wilmington, called likewise antiently Wilmingdon, is a manor which lies at the southern part of this parish, on the Ashford road likewise. It gives name to the borough in which it stands, and to the hamlet of houses which stand round about it. Robert de Wilmington held this manor in the reign of Henry III. in grand sergeantry, of the honor of Bolegne, by the service of being the earl's cook, it being then valued at two marcs. His descendant Bertram de Wilmington, died possessed of it in the 12th year of Edward II. when it was found by inquisition, that he held it of the king in capite, by the service of finding for the king one pot-hook for his meat, whenever he should come within the manor of Boughton Aluph. (fn. 8) His descendant, of the same name, died possessed of it in the 6th year of king Henry V. After which it came into the possession of John Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, who was possessed of it in the 2d year of Edward IV. On his death the great inheritance of the Mowbrays came to the descendants of his two sisters and coheirs, and in the division of it John, lord Howard, in right of his mother Margaret, the eldest of them, became entitled to this manor. He was one of the most illustrious noblemen of his time, and having continued faithful to the house of York, he remained no less stedfast to the interest of king Richard III. who created him duke of Norsolk, earl marshal and lord admiral of England. But he did not enjoy these honors long; for he was next year slain in the battle of Bosworth, fighting on the king's behalf, and in the 1st year of Henry VII. he was attainted in parliament, and this manor, among his other possessions, became confiscated to the crown; (fn. 9) whence it was afterwards granted to Moyle, in which name it continued till the beginning of Edward VI.'s reign, when by Catherine, daughter and coheir of Sir Thomas Moyle, of Eastwell, it went in marriage to Sir Thomas Finch, of that parish, who died in 1563, and she remarrying with Nicholas St. Leger, esq. of Beamstone, in Westwell, entitled him to it for her life. She died in 1586, on which it came to her son Sir Moyle Finch, bart. in whose descendants, earl of Winchelsea, it descended down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who at his death in 1769, devised it to his nephew George Finch Hatton, esq. now of Eastwell, the present owner of it.

 

But Part Of The Demesne Lands of this manor were sold off, about the year 1713, to the Rev. Hilkiah Bedford, publisher of the bereditary Right of the Crown of England asserted, whose eldest son William Bedford M.D. whose daughter Elizabeth marrying Mr. Claxton, of Shirley, in Surry, has entitled him to the possession of it.

 

ANOTHER PART of this estate, now called Little Wilmington, in the reign of king Henry VI. was in the possession of Richard Sandys, who alienated it to John Barough, who resided at it, and died possessed of it in the 1st year of king Edward IV. One of his descendants, Richard Barrowe, resided here in the reigns of king Elizabeth and James I. and died in the 6th year of the latter, leaving three sons, Robert, Richard, and William, to which last he devised his house and lands in Borden, and from him descended the Barrows of that parish. To Robert Barrow, his eldest son, he devised this estate of Little Wilmington, and in his descendants it continued, till it was at length sold to Knott, and from that name again to Dr. William Egerton, prebendary of Canterbury, who died possessed of it in 1728, leaving two daughters his coheirs, and his widow surviving, upon whose death it came to Jemima, widow of Edward Bridges, esq. of Wotton, one of the above-mentioned coheirs, and William Hammond, esq. of St. Albans, the eldest son of William Hammond, esq. of that place, by Charlotte the other coheir; and upon a division made, this estate was allotted to Mrs. Bridges above-mentioned, now of Canterbury, and she is the present possessor of it.

 

MARDOL MANOR is the last place to be mentioned in this parish, lying on the south side of it. This manor was antiently the patrimony of the Corbies in which it continued till Robert Corbie, in the reign of king Richard II. leaving an only daughter and heir Joane, she carried it, among the rest of her inheritance, to Sir Nicholas Wotton, whose descendant Thomas Wotton, esq. in the reign of queen Elizabeth, passed it away by sale to Sprott, from which name, in the reign of king Charles I. it was alienated to Thomas Finch, earl of Winchelsea, in whose descendants it continued down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who in 1769, gave it by will, with the rest of his estates in this county, to his nephew George Finch Hatton, esq. now the present owner of it.

 

Charities.

MR. JOHN BOUGHTON, vicar, left to this parish by will, in 1642, 30s. per annum to such poor as had great charge of children, aged and incapable to work, to be distributed on the Thursday in Whitsun-week; and to the churchwardens and overseers, 10s. per annum, for a sermon to be preached on that day, to be paid out of house and land on Boughton lees.

 

MR. THOMAS KEEPS left by will in 1780, 20s. per annum to the use of the poor, out of a field in Great Chart, rented at 6l. per annum, the remainder of the rent being left to five other parishes.

 

MR. WILLIAM CROW left by will in 1770, to this parish, the sum of 90l. to be put into the public funds, the amount of the profits of it to be yearly distributed by the owners of Eastwell-place, among such honest and well disposed poor aged men and women, especially widows, as they should consider real objects of charity; but not to persons receiving alms, in relief of the parish.

 

There is an alms-house belonging to this parish, on Boughtonlees, containing six dwellings.

 

The poor constantly relieved are about 15, casually 20.

 

BOUGHTON ALUPH is within the ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION of the diocese of Canterbury, and deanry of Bridge.

 

The church, which is dedicated to All Saints, is large and handsome, built of slint, with ashlar stone to the doors, windows, and quoins. It consists of three isles and two chancels. The steeple is a large low tower, standing on four pillars in the middle of it. There are five bells in it, and at the south-east corner, adjoining to the tower, is a large square addition, in which is a stone stair-case. Both the chancels did belong to the Buckwell estate; but the family of Breton having buried in both since their sale of it, without Mr. Knight's permission, he refused to repair them, and they are now repaired by Mr. Breton. In the great chancel, within the rails, is a monument for Thomas Austen, esq. obt. 1637. In this and the north chancel are many gravestones of the Moiles and Bretons. In the north chancel is a handsome monument of marble, for Amy, wife of Josias Clerk, gent. of Essex, daughter of John Moyle, esq. of Buckwell, obt. 1631, having the effigies of her lying at full length, and of her three children kneeling at her head and feet, in full proportion, under a canopy. In the middle isle is a memorial for John Mascall, esq. obt. 1769; arms, Two bars, over all, three escutcheons ermine, impaling a saltier, and on it a crescent, for difference; and there are memorials for others likewise of the same family.

 

The church of Boughton Aluph, as has been already mentioned before, was antiently an appendage to the manor, and continued so in the 4th year of Richard II. when Sir Walter Pavely died possessed of the same, and it was found that Sir Thomas de Aldon was his next heir. How long afterwards it continued in his heirs I have not found; but in the reign of Henry VI. the advowson of this rectory was become the property of cardinal John Kempe, archbishop of York, who settled it on his new-founded college of Wye, and in the 29th year of that reign the master and chaplains of it had the king's licence to receive this advowson from the cardinal, and to appropriate the rectory of it to themselves; (fn. 10) and a vicarage was endowed here. In which situation it remained till the suppression of the college, in the 36th year of Henry VIII. when it was surrendered into the king's hands, who that year granted this church, with the presentation of the vicarage of it, among other premises, to Walter Bucler, esq. to hold in capite, with certain provisos for the maintenance of the curates and schoolmaster of Wye; which grant, on his non-performance of these conditions, became forfeited, and king Charles I. in his 2d and 5th years, granted the same premises, with the proviso for the payment of certain stipends to the before-mentioned curate and schoolmaster, to Robert Maxwell, from whose heirs this rectory and advowson was afterwards sold to Moyle, of Buckwell, in which name it continued till Mary, daughter and sole heir of John Moyle, esq. of Buckwell, carried them in marriage to Robert Breton, esq. of the Elmes, near Dover, who died possessed of them in 1708, and his great grandson the Rev. Moyle Breton, of Kennington, is the present owner of the parsonage appropriate of Boughton, with the advowson of the vicarage of this church, who pays twenty pounds per annum from it towards the stipends of the curate and schoolmaster of Wye, as stipulated in Robert Maxwell's patent, the several premises granted in it being now in different hands as has been already more fully mentioned before.

 

It is valued in the king's books at 6l. 5s. the yearly tenths being 12s. 6d. but it is now of the clear yearly certified value (delivered in 1752) of 58l. 6s. 10d.

 

In 1578 here were communicants one hundred and fifty-four; in 1640, one hundred and seventy-seven. It is now worth about eighty pounds per annum. There are twenty three acres of glebe belonging to it.

 

There was a composition in 1305 entered into between the rector of Westwell and Stephen de Wilmington, rector of this church, concerning the tithes of the hamlets of Shotingdon, Chilberton, and Wike.

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol7/pp384-398

Othello Castle, also known as Othello's Tower, is a castle in Famagusta, Northern Cyprus. It was built by the Lusignans in the 14th century, and was later modified by the Venetians. The modern name of the castle comes from a stage note in Shakespeare's play Othello.

 

Othello Castle was built in the 14th century by the Lusignans (who ruled the Kingdom of Cyprus) to protect the port against possible enemy attacks. It was also used as the main entrance to Famagusta. It used to be called "impenetrable fortress" due to it being nearly impossible to attack because of very deep ditches surrounding it.

 

After Cyprus was sold to the Republic of Venice, the castle's square towers were replaced with circular ones to suit more modern artillery. After these modifications, a relief of the Lion of St Mark was engraved above the castle's main entrance. The name of Captain Nicolo Foscari, who directed the alterations to the castle, and the date 1492 are inscribed near the relief. Apparently Leonardo da Vinci advised the refurbishment in 1481. The castle gets its name from Shakespeare's famous play Othello, which is set in a harbour town in Cyprus.

 

In 1900, the castle's ditch was drained of water to reduce the risk of malaria.

 

The castle began to be restored in 2014, and it reopened to the public on 3 July 2015.

 

The castle contains four circular towers. It contains a refectory and a dormitory, which were constructed during the Lusignan period. The castle's yard contains cannonballs left behind by the Spaniards and Ottomans, relics of its turbulent history.

 

Famagusta is a city on the east coast of the de facto state Northern Cyprus. It is located east of Nicosia and possesses the deepest harbour of the island. During the Middle Ages (especially under the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice), Famagusta was the island's most important port city and a gateway to trade with the ports of the Levant, from where the Silk Road merchants carried their goods to Western Europe. The old walled city and parts of the modern city are de facto part of Northern Cyprus as the capital of the Gazimağusa District.

 

The city was known as Arsinoe or Arsinoë (Greek: Ἀρσινόη, Arsinóē) in antiquity, after Ptolemy II of Egypt's sister and wife Arsinoe II.

 

By the 3rd century, the city appears as Ammochostos (Greek: Ἀμμόχωστος or Αμμόχωστος, Ammókhōstos, "Hidden in Sand") in the Stadiasmus Maris Magni.[5] This name is still used in modern Greek with the pronunciation [aˈmːoxostos], while it developed into Latin Fama Augusta, French Famagouste, Italian Famagosta, and English Famagusta during the medieval period. Its informal modern Turkish name Mağusa (Turkish pronunciation: [maˈusa]) came from the same source. Since 1974, it has formally been known to Turkey and Northern Cyprus as Gazimağusa ([ɡaːzimaˈusa]), from the addition of the title gazi, meaning "veteran" or "one who has faught in a holy war".

 

In the early medieval period, the city was also known as New Justiniana (Greek: Νέα Ἰουστινιανία, Néa Ioustinianía) in appreciation for the patronage of the Byzantine emperor Justinian, whose wife Theodora was born there.

 

The old town of Famagusta has also been nicknamed "the City of 365 Churches" from the legend that, at its peak, it boasted a church for every day of the year.

 

The city was founded around 274 BC, after the serious damage to Salamis by an earthquake, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus and named "Arsinoe" after his sister.[6] Arsinoe was described as a "fishing town" by Strabo in his Geographica in the first century BC. In essence, Famagusta was the successor of the most famous and most important ancient city of Cyprus, Salamis. According to Greek mythology, Salamis was founded after the end of the Trojan War by Teucros, the son of Telamon and brother of Aedes, from the Greek island of Salamis.

 

The city experienced great prosperity much later, during the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. To honor the city, from which his wife Theodora came, Justinian enriched it with many buildings, while the inhabitants named it New Justiniania to express their gratitude. In AD 647, when the neighboring cities were destroyed by Arab raiding, the inhabitants of these cities moved to Famagusta, as a result of which the city's population increased significantly and the city experienced another boom.

 

Later, when Jerusalem was occupied by the Arabs, the Christian population fled to Famagusta, as a result of which the city became an important Christian center, but also one of the most important commercial centers in the eastern Mediterranean.

 

The turning point for Famagusta was 1192 with the onset of Lusignan rule. It was during this period that Famagusta developed as a fully-fledged town. It increased in importance to the Eastern Mediterranean due to its natural harbour and the walls that protected its inner town. Its population began to increase. This development accelerated in the 13th century as the town became a centre of commerce for both the East and West. An influx of Christian refugees fleeing the downfall of Acre (1291) in Palestine transformed it from a tiny village into one of the richest cities in Christendom.

 

In 1372 the port was seized by Genoa and in 1489 by Venice. This commercial activity turned Famagusta into a place where merchants and ship owners led lives of luxury. By the mid-14th century, Famagusta was said to have the richest citizens in the world. The belief that people's wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches built in varying styles. These churches, which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as "the district of churches". The development of the town focused on the social lives of the wealthy people and was centred upon the Lusignan palace, the cathedral, the Square and the harbour.

 

In 1570–1571, Famagusta was the last stronghold in Venetian Cyprus to hold out against the Turks under Mustafa Pasha. It resisted a siege of thirteen months and a terrible bombardment, until at last the garrison surrendered. The Ottoman forces had lost 50,000 men, including Mustafa Pasha's son. Although the surrender terms had stipulated that the Venetian forces be allowed to return home, the Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadin, was flayed alive, his lieutenant Tiepolo was hanged, and many other Christians were killed.

 

With the advent of the Ottoman rule, Latins lost their privileged status in Famagusta and were expelled from the city. Greek Cypriots natives were at first allowed to own and buy property in the city, but were banished from the walled city in 1573–74 and had to settle outside in the area that later developed into Varosha. Turkish families from Anatolia were resettled in the walled city but could not fill the buildings that previously hosted a population of 10,000. This caused a drastic decrease in the population of Famagusta. Merchants from Famagusta, who mostly consisted of Latins that had been expelled, resettled in Larnaca and as Larnaca flourished, Famagusta lost its importance as a trade centre. Over time, Varosha developed into a prosperous agricultural town thanks to its location away from the marshes, whilst the walled city remained dilapidated.

 

In the walled city, some buildings were repurposed to serve the interests of the Muslim population: the Cathedral of St. Nicholas was converted to a mosque (now known as Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque), a bazaar was developed, public baths, fountains and a theological school were built to accommodate the inhabitants' needs. Dead end streets, an Ottoman urban characteristic, was imported to the city and a communal spirit developed in which a small number of two-storey houses inhabited by the small upper class co-existed with the widespread one-storey houses.

 

With the British takeover, Famagusta regained its significance as a port and an economic centre and its development was specifically targeted in British plans. As soon as the British took over the island, a Famagusta Development Act was passed that aimed at the reconstruction and redevelopment of the city's streets and dilapidated buildings as well as better hygiene. The port was developed and expanded between 1903 and 1906 and Cyprus Government Railway, with its terminus in Famagusta, started construction in 1904. Whilst Larnaca continued to be used as the main port of the island for some time, after Famagusta's use as a military base in World War I trade significantly shifted to Famagusta. The city outside the walls grew at an accelerated rate, with development being centred around Varosha. Varosha became the administrative centre as the British moved their headquarters and residences there and tourism grew significantly in the last years of the British rule. Pottery and production of citrus and potatoes also significantly grew in the city outside the walls, whilst agriculture within the walled city declined to non-existence.

 

New residential areas were built to accommodate the increasing population towards the end of the British rule,[11] and by 1960, Famagusta was a modern port city extending far beyond Varosha and the walled city.

 

The British period saw a significant demographic shift in the city. In 1881, Christians constituted 60% of the city's population while Muslims were at 40%. By 1960, the Turkish Cypriot population had dropped to 17.5% of the overall population, while the Greek Cypriot population had risen to 70%. The city was also the site for one of the British internment camps for nearly 50,000 Jewish survivors of the Holocaust trying to emigrate to Palestine.

 

From independence in 1960 to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus of 1974, Famagusta developed toward the south west of Varosha as a well-known entertainment and tourist centre. The contribution of Famagusta to the country's economic activity by 1974 far exceeded its proportional dimensions within the country. Whilst its population was only about 7% of the total of the country, Famagusta by 1974 accounted for over 10% of the total industrial employment and production of Cyprus, concentrating mainly on light industry compatible with its activity as a tourist resort and turning out high-quality products ranging from food, beverages and tobacco to clothing, footwear, plastics, light machinery and transport equipment. It contributed 19.3% of the business units and employed 21.3% of the total number of persons engaged in commerce on the island. It acted as the main tourist destination of Cyprus, hosting 31.5% of the hotels and 45% of Cyprus' total bed capacity. Varosha acted as the main touristic and business quarters.

 

In this period, the urbanisation of Famagusta slowed down and the development of the rural areas accelerated. Therefore, economic growth was shared between the city of Famagusta and the district, which had a balanced agricultural economy, with citrus, potatoes, tobacco and wheat as main products. Famagusta maintained good communications with this hinterland. The city's port remained the island's main seaport and in 1961, it was expanded to double its capacity in order to accommodate the growing volume of exports and imports. The port handled 42.7% of Cypriot exports, 48.6% of imports and 49% of passenger traffic.

 

There has not been an official census since 1960 but the population of the town in 1974 was estimated to be around 39,000 not counting about 12,000–15,000 persons commuting daily from the surrounding villages and suburbs to work in Famagusta. The number of people staying in the city would swell to about 90,000–100,000 during the peak summer tourist period, with the influx of tourists from numerous European countries, mainly Britain, France, Germany and the Scandinavian countries. The majority of the city population were Greek Cypriots (26,500), with 8,500 Turkish Cypriots and 4,000 people from other ethnic groups.

 

During the second phase of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 14 August 1974 the Mesaoria plain was overrun by Turkish tanks and Famagusta was bombed by Turkish aircraft. It took two days for the Turkish Army to occupy the city, prior to which Famagusta's entire Greek Cypriot population had fled into surrounding fields. As a result of Turkish airstrikes dozens of civilians died, including tourists.

 

Unlike other parts of the Turkish-controlled areas of Cyprus, the Varosha suburb of Famagusta was fenced off by the Turkish army immediately after being captured and remained fenced off until October 2020, when the TRNC reopened some streets to visitors. Some Greek Cypriots who had fled Varosha have been allowed to view the town and journalists have been allowed in.

 

UN Security Council resolution 550 (1984) considers any attempts to settle any part of Famagusta by people other than its inhabitants as inadmissible and calls for the transfer of this area to the administration of the UN. The UN's Security Council resolution 789 (1992) also urges that with a view to the implementation of resolution 550 (1984), the area at present under the control of the United Nations Peace-keeping Force in Cyprus be extended to include Varosha.

 

Famagusta's historic city centre is surrounded by the fortifications of Famagusta, which have a roughly rectangular shape, built mainly by the Venetians in the 15th and 16th centuries, though some sections of the walls have been dated earlier times, as far as 1211.

 

Some important landmarks and visitor attractions in the old city are:

The Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque

The Othello Castle

Palazzo del Provveditore - the Venetian palace of the governor, built on the site of the former Lusignan royal palace

St. Francis' Church

Sinan Pasha Mosque

Church of St. George of the Greeks

Church of St. George of the Latins

Twin Churches

Nestorian Church (of St George the Exiler)

Namık Kemal Dungeon

Agios Ioannis Church

Venetian House

Akkule Masjid

Mustafa Pasha Mosque

Ganchvor monastery

 

In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage, Global Heritage Fund listed Famagusta, a "maritime ancient city of crusader kings", among the 12 sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing insufficient management and development pressures.

 

Famagusta is an important commercial hub of Northern Cyprus. The main economic activities in the city are tourism, education, construction and industrial production. It has a 115-acre free port, which is the most important seaport of Northern Cyprus for travel and commerce. The port is an important source of income and employment for the city, though its volume of trade is restricted by the embargo against Northern Cyprus. Its historical sites, including the walled city, Salamis, the Othello Castle and the St Barnabas Church, as well as the sandy beaches surrounding it make it a tourist attraction; efforts are also underway to make the city more attractive for international congresses. The Eastern Mediterranean University is also an important employer and supplies significant income and activity, as well as opportunities for the construction sector. The university also raises a qualified workforce that stimulates the city's industry and makes communications industry viable. The city has two industrial zones: the Large Industrial Zone and the Little Industrial Zone. The city is also home to a fishing port, but inadequate infrastructure of the port restricts the growth of this sector. The industry in the city has traditionally been concentrated on processing agricultural products.

 

Historically, the port was the primary source of income and employment for the city, especially right after 1974. However, it gradually lost some of its importance to the economy as the share of its employees in the population of Famagusta diminished due to various reasons. However, it still is the primary port for commerce in Northern Cyprus, with more than half of ships that came to Northern Cyprus in 2013 coming to Famagusta. It is the second most popular seaport for passengers, after Kyrenia, with around 20,000 passengers using the port in 2013.

 

The mayor-in-exile of Famagusta is Simos Ioannou. Süleyman Uluçay heads the Turkish Cypriot municipal administration of Famagusta, which remains legal as a communal-based body under the constitutional system of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Since 1974, Greek Cypriots submitted a number of proposals within the context of bicommunal discussions for the return of Varosha to UN administration, allowing the return of its previous inhabitants, requesting also the opening of Famagusta harbour for use by both communities. Varosha would have been returned to Greek Cypriot control as part of the 2004 Annan Plan but the plan had been rejected by a majority(3/4) of Greek Cypriot voters.

 

The walled city of Famagusta contains many unique buildings. Famagusta has a walled city popular with tourists.

 

Every year, the International Famagusta Art and Culture Festival is organized in Famagusta. Concerts, dance shows and theater plays take place during the festival.

 

A growth in tourism and the city's university have fueled the development of Famagusta's vibrant nightlife. Nightlife in the city is especially active on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday nights and in the hotter months of the year, starting from April. Larger hotels in the city have casinos that cater to their customers. Salamis Road is an area of Famagusta with a heavy concentration of bars frequented by students and locals.

 

Famagusta's Othello Castle is the setting for Shakespeare's play Othello. The city was also the setting for Victoria Hislop's 2015 novel The Sunrise, and Michael Paraskos's 2016 novel In Search of Sixpence. The city is the birthplace of the eponymous hero of the Renaissance proto-novel Fortunatus.

 

Famagusta was home to many Greek Cypriot sport teams that left the city because of the Turkish invasion and still bear their original names. Most notable football clubs originally from the city are Anorthosis Famagusta FC and Nea Salamis Famagusta FC, both of the Cypriot First Division, which are now based in Larnaca. Usually Anorthosis Famagusta fans are politically right wing where Nea Salamis fans are left wing.

 

Famagusta is represented by Mağusa Türk Gücü in the Turkish Cypriot First Division. Dr. Fazıl Küçük Stadium is the largest football stadium in Famagusta. Many Turkish Cypriot sport teams that left Southern Cyprus because of the Cypriot intercommunal violence are based in Famagusta.

 

Famagusta is represented by DAÜ Sports Club and Magem Sports Club in North Cyprus First Volleyball Division. Gazimağusa Türk Maarif Koleji represents Famagusta in the North Cyprus High School Volleyball League.

 

Famagusta has a modern volleyball stadium called the Mağusa Arena.

 

The Eastern Mediterranean University was founded in the city in 1979. The Istanbul Technical University founded a campus in the city in 2010.

 

The Cyprus College of Art was founded in Famagusta by the Cypriot artist Stass Paraskos in 1969, before moving to Paphos in 1972 after protests from local hoteliers that the presence of art students in the city was putting off holidaymakers.

 

Famagusta has three general hospitals. Gazimağusa Devlet Hastahanesi, a state hospital, is the biggest hospital in city. Gazimağusa Tıp Merkezi and Gazimağusa Yaşam Hastahanesi are private hospitals.

 

Personalities

Saint Barnabas, born and died in Salamis, Famagusta

Chris Achilleos, illustrator of the book versions on the BBC children's series Doctor Who

Beran Bertuğ, former Governor of Famagusta, first Cypriot woman to hold this position

Marios Constantinou, former international Cypriot football midfielder and current manager.

Eleftheria Eleftheriou, Cypriot singer.

Derviş Eroğlu, former President of Northern Cyprus

Alexis Galanos, 7th President of the House of Representatives and Famagusta mayor-in-exile (2006-2019) (Republic of Cyprus)

Xanthos Hadjisoteriou, Cypriot painter

Oz Karahan, political activist, President of the Union of Cypriots

Oktay Kayalp, former Turkish Cypriot Famagusta mayor (Northern Cyprus)

Harry Luke British diplomat

Angelos Misos, former international footballer

Costas Montis was an influential and prolific Greek Cypriot poet, novelist, and playwright born in Famagusta.

Hal Ozsan, actor (Dawson's Creek, Kyle XY)

Dimitris Papadakis, a Greek Cypriot politician, who served as a Member of the European Parliament.

Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, Persian religious leader, lived and died in exile in Famagusta

Touker Suleyman (born Türker Süleyman), British Turkish Cypriot fashion retail entrepreneur, investor and reality television personality.

Alexia Vassiliou, singer, left here as a refugee when the town was invaded.

George Vasiliou, former President of Cyprus

Vamik Volkan, Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry

Derviş Zaim, film director

 

Famagusta is twinned with:

İzmir, Turkey (since 1974)

Corfu, Greece (since 1994)

Patras, Greece (since 1994)

Antalya, Turkey (since 1997)

Salamina (city), Greece (since 1998)

Struga, North Macedonia

Athens, Greece (since 2005)

Mersin, Turkey

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

THIS IS THE GOSPEL THAT SAVES, PERIOD!

 

Do you see anything in here about what you’re doing, or not doing? No, you do not. Why???? Because the GOSPEL THAT SAVES, has NOTHING to do with YOU, it’s about what CHRIST ALONE HAS DONE, FOR US!

 

See the GOSPEL THAT HAS THE POWER TO SAVE, IS ABOUT LIFTING CHRIST UP, NOT “YOU”, OR “ME”.

 

What did Jesus say regarding this matter? 32 And I, when I am lifted up from the earth, will draw all men unto myself. (John 12:32) Jesus was physically lifted up on the cross, SALVATION is about Jesus, not us. Are we getting that message in our “churches” today? NO, they make EVERYTHING ABOUT WHAT WE ARE DOING OR NOT DOING. THEY HAVE IN FACT PERVERTED THE GOSPEL OF JESUS CHRIST, for the most part. That is in point of fact what religious institutions do. In their minds, it's much more important what YOU are doing than what Jesus has done. Because their objective is, CONTROL. The most important thing they want YOU to do, is throw money at them. Because their ministry is the way they make their living on the backs of the people, just like the government does. Notice the similarity?

 

God say's he wants us to be controlled by HIS LOVE, not man. But by the Spirit of God, that comes to live in us when we come to FAITH in JESUS.

 

God say's, "freely you have received, freely give." Religion does't do anything for free, in fact they lie to you for a life time keeping dependent on them, never on Jesus. It's really just another form of servitude, to an organization rather than the one who died for you, so he could set you free. Because when God himself lives in you, you have NO NEED for man to rule over you, which I believe is the main reason they don't want you to know truth. But then, they'd have to know what truth was before they could share it with YOU. But God also tells us that, "those people have been robbed of the truth."

 

Do you see anything in the Gospel about, Asking for Forgiveness, Water Baptism, Babbling in Tongues, Going to church on Saturday, Tithing (that’s the real purpose), Circumcision, Slaying people in the spirit, Building funds, or whatever else your particular denomination is PUSHING this week? NO YOU DO NOT. Which is why God hates RELIGION, and Denominationalism of any kind. God saves SINNERS, not denominations, or religions. Salvation is about FAITH IN HIS SON, JESUS CHRIST THE ONE THAT DID IT ALL FOR US, BECAUSE WE COULD DO NOTHING OF OURSELVES. Pride, just hates the fact that they are left out of the equation. Ego say’s, this has to be about big important wonderful ME! IT’S NOT ABOUT US, NONE OF IT!

 

What does God have to say about this;

 

1 You foolish Galatians! WHO HAS BEWITCHED YOU? Before your very eyes Jesus Christ was clearly portrayed as crucified. 2 I would like to learn just one thing from you: Did you receive the Spirit by observing the law, or by believing what you heard? 3 Are you so foolish? After beginning with the Spirit, are you now trying to attain your goal by human effort? 4 Have you suffered so much for nothing--if it really was for nothing? 5 Does God give you his Spirit and work miracles among you because you observe the law, or because you BELIEVE what you heard? (Galatians 3:1-5)

 

Are we so “FOOLISH” (STUPID) we can be conned into believing this is about anything we can accomplish in the energy of our FLESH, because some pastor, preacher, teacher, lecturer, self-important con-artist, has BEWITCHED YOU, meaning of which is, “cast an evil spell on you” gained control over your mind, captivated, enchanted, entranced, enraptured, charmed, beguiled, or deceived you into believing a LIE. Check this out, if this doesn’t open our eye’s NOTHING WILL!

 

6 I am astonished that you are so quickly deserting JESUS who called you by the grace of Christ and are turning to a different gospel— 7 which is really NO GOSPEL AT ALL. Evidently some people are throwing you into confusion and are trying to PERVERT THE GOSPEL OF CHRIST. 8 BUT IF WE OR AN ANGEL FROM HEAVEN SHOULD PREACH A GOSPEL OTHER THAN THE ONE WE PREACHED TO YOU, LET HIM BE ETERNALLY CONDEMNED! 9 AS WE HAVE ALREADY SAID, SO NOW I SAY AGAIN: IF ANYBODY IS PREACHING TO YOU A GOSPEL OTHER THAN WHAT YOU ACCEPTED, LET HIM BE ETERNALLY CONDEMNED! (Galatians 1:6-9)

 

So how serious is this folks? Paul the “APOSTLE OF GRACE” is saying if anybody is adding anything to the gospel, LET HIM OR HER, ROT IN HELL FOR ETERNITY! I’m paraphrasing here. So you can see just how serious God considers this issue. So it had better be that serious to us as well, if we don’t want to be eternally condemned! Can I get a AMEN, here? I'm thrilled by the love the Father has for us, and his Son, Jesus Christ the only righteous one.

 

Remember, God is a jealous God, he will not allow the credit do his Son, to be shared with mere men. The very Son of God did something. But man wants to make it all about him, God is not going to allow that to happen, no bait and switch here folks, it's ALL JESUS, OR NOTHING AT ALL. Put your Faith in God the Son! NO faith in ourselves or any man can do to add to the blood of Jesus, and the POWER of his RESURRECTION.

 

THANK YOU MY JESUS, YOU DID IT ALL, IT'S ALL YOU, PRAISE THE NAME OF JESUS. IF ANY OF THIS WAS ABOUT ME, I'D BE DOOMED FOREVER. BUT PRAISE BE TO GOD IT'S NOT ABOUT ME, IT'S ALL YOU! THANK YOU MY FATHER!

 

Want to learn more about who YOU ARE in the New Covenant?

  

------------------------ JESUS ✝️ SAVES -------------------------

 

Grace and Peace to you from God our Father in the Lord Jesus Christ, FOREVER! Through Faith in Jesus!

 

10 The thief comes only to STEAL and KILL and DESTROY; I have come that they may have LIFE, and have it to the FULL. (John 10:10)

 

Jesus came to bring spiritual LIFE to the spiritually dead and set the captives FREE! FREE from RELIGION, ERROR and outright LIES, so they might serve THE LIVING GOD! In SPIRIT and in TRUTH!

 

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Its beginning to feel a little like Spring.

 

Even if the temperature didn't get above 4 degrees today, the sun did shine, and there was little breeze. And on our travels through the Kent countryside, spring flowers were everywhere to be seen.

 

We got up at half six when the water heater fired up, fed the cats, gave Scully her jab and made coffee.

 

Then to Whitfield for some hunting and gathering. Jools needing a cider restock and then the rest of the stuff we get through each week.

 

At least shopping so early means missing most of the crazies, and we see the same faces each week, though not well enough to speak, maybe the nod of a head.

 

Back home for breakfast of fruit and tea, put the shopping away and ignore the meows for more food.

 

And off out for some gentle churchcrawling. Our first target is perhaps the last substantial Norman church in east Kent I had yet to visit: Great Chart.

 

Great Chart is now a suburb of Ashford, which is spreading westwards towards the Romney Marsh. This means navigating the series of manic roundabouts onto the A28, past Waitrose and out of town, turning off on about the tenth roundabout, and through the village, no new builds here.

 

And on top of the hill is the church, which Google maps assured me would be open at ten. It was twenty five to eleven, so safe as milk?

 

No. It was locked, with no details of keyholders. So I took some exterior shots and we walked back to the car.

 

I had a back up. We were going here anyway, just Jools didn't know.

 

On the other side of Ashford, out in the countryside, and just below the treeline of Kings Wood, at the end of a dead end lane next to a manor house, is Boughton Aluph.

 

I knew it would be locked, but also knew there was details of a keyholder. So, once we arrived, I called the number, was given directions, and off we set to Boughton Leas.

 

Up a six footer up the down, right at a junction, then right at the first cottage, and the old lady was waiting.

 

We reversed out, turned round and went back to the church, parking in the entrance to a field.

 

Beds jammed with Winter Aconites abounded, but i only had eyes for the church, up the steep path and through the old swing gate.

 

There is no path to the Priest's door, just a track of flattened grass. I went down the stops, inserted the key and turned, the door moved, then opened.

 

Inside is a large a airy space, well lit through windows with little stained glass. Entry is via the vestry in the north chapel, so I walk out into the Chancel, ad look back at the large Nave, filled with chairs.

 

The walls are sparsely adorned, with the memorials that are there as listed by Hasted below. Amazing to think of details recorded 220 years ago are still there and recognisable by his description.

 

The church has a new organ, which I am told sounds splendid in the summer when there are regular concerts as part of Stour Valley Music group.

 

Beside the organ I see the wall painting of The Trinity, though it is hard to see it all other than via an oblique view as the organ is in the way.

 

Ancient glass fills the upper traceries of the east window, most in good condition. At the west in, shards and remnants make more of an abstract display.

 

After half an hour I was done, so leave a donation and exit the church, locking the door behind me.

 

We took the key back, then was the question: shall we have lunch out?

 

We shall.

 

But where.

 

I mention the New Flying Horse in Wye, which is three miles away across the Stour and railway. So off we go. At the level crossing we see the new barriers, which replaced the manual gates a couple of years back, then up through the village, past the mad parking near the market, and along a back street to the pub.

 

It was five minutes past opening time.

 

They had a table, and at least three menus. We both chose steakburgers, and so waited and people-watched until the food arrived.

 

It was nothing extraordinary, but that's not what you want in a burger: just cheese, bacon and pickles. And lots of crispy fries.

 

We pay, and leave. Jools had accidentally ordered a pint of cider, so I drove back, back over Wye Down, to Stone Street then to Bridge and onto the A2.

 

Traffic was very light, we got back at two, just in time to watch the end of the lunchtime games and make a brew before taking my place beside Scully on the sofa.

 

Where I then fell asleep for half an hour.

 

Norwich only drew at Hull, a team we put to the sword in the warm autumn sunshine back in September.

 

Bacon butties for supper, then settle down to watch Palace v Everton, and it was the Toffees who win again under their old new manager, David Moyes.

 

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A connoisseur's church built in the thirteenth century by a man called Adulphus to replace a Saxon church. About a hundred years later the church was substantially enlarged under Sir Thomas Aldon, a courtier of Edward III. Stained glass shields of the King and associated Kentish families still survive as part of the fantastic East window where the upper lights actually follow the curve of both the external arch and the arch of the three main lights below. How fine it must have looked when completely glazed in stained glass. The south porch has a rare fireplace - showing that it may have been adapted to cater for pilgrims on their way to the shrine of Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. Of the same date is the fine screen and possibly the floor tiles. In the north transept is a good example of late fifteenth century wall painting. It depicts the Trinity and is set in a series of decorative frames. Regrettably the dove - central to the story as representative of the Holy Spirit - has long disappeared.

 

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Boughton+Aluph

 

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BOUGHTON ALUPH

IS the next parish westward from that of Wye. It is frequently spelt Bocton, and is written in Domesday, Boltune, and has the addition of Aluph to it from one of its antient owners, Alulphus de Bocton, as well as to distinguish it from the other parishes of the same name in this county, and in a will, proved anno 1416, in the Prerogative-office, Canterbury, I find it mentioned by the name of the parish of Boughton Aluph, otherwise called Boughton in the Bushe. There are four boroughs in it, Goatlands, Wilmington, Dane, and Hebbinge.

 

THE PARISH lies about twelve miles distant both from Canterbury and Faversham, and about four from Ashford, the high road from Canterbury to the latter goes along the foot of the hills, near the eastern boundary of the parish, where the soil is chalky; close on the east side of the road is Buckwell-house, great part of which has been some time since pulled down, but there is sufficient remaining, with the offices and walls about it, to shew it was once a seat of some note, and at no great distance on the hill, high above the road, is the church and court-lodge. Above this, still further westward, is much open, rough ground, called the Warren, on a chalky soil, reaching beyond the high Faversham road, the new inclosure in Eastwell park adjoining to it, being within this parish; within the northern boundary of it there is a parcel of woodland, about one hundred acres lying in Kingswood, just above Socombe down; it was formerly part of Barton manor, and was sold off from it by Mr. Breton a few years before he sold that manor to Sir Robert Furnese, bart, by whose daughter Catherine it went in marriage to the earl of Guildford, whose grandson George-Augustus, earl of Guildford, is now possessed of it. By the pales of Eastwell park, at a small distance from the mansion of it, the last mentioned road descends below the hill to low ground, and mostly a gravelly soil; on it is the village, situated round a green, called Boughton lees, the west side only of which is in this parish. At the southern boundary of the parish, on the Ashford road, is the borough and hamlet of Wilmington, the antient mansion of which stood close to the road, it has been long since pulled down. It stood within a moat, which is still very entire, its area containing half an acre of ground; many old foundations have been dug up round about it within memory.

 

There is a fair held on the lees on Midsummer day for toys and pedlary.

 

IN THE TIME of the Saxons this place was in the possession of earl Godwin, who was succeeded in it by his eldest son earl Harold, afterwards king of England, on whose death in the fatal battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror having obtained the crown, seized on all the late king's estates, and gave this of Boughton to Eustance, earl of Bologne, who had followed him over hither, as a reward for his services; and he possessed it in the 15th year of that reign, at the time the survey of Domesday was taken, in which it is thus entered, under the title of Terra Comitis Eustachii, i. e. the land of earl Eustace.

 

In the lath of Wivarlet, in Wihundred, the earl holds Boltune. Earl Goduin held it, and it was taxed at seven sulings, then and now. The arable land is thirty-three carucartes. In demesne there are three, and sixty-seven villeins, with five borders having thirty carucates. There is a church, and seventeen servants, and two mills of seven shillings and two-pence, and twenty-six acres of meadow. Wood for the pannage of two hundred hogs. In the time of king Edward the Confessor it was worth twenty pounds, and afterwards thirty pounds, now forty pounds.

 

Of the earl of Bologne this manor was held by a family who assumed their name from it. Alulphus de Boughton held it in the reign of king John, as appears by the Testa de Nevil, of the honor of Bologne. Stephen de Bocton died possessed of this manor in the 14th year of Edward I. holding it in capite by knight's service; together with its member, Hethenden, in Kent, and Orset, in Essex, both escheats of that honor. Soon after which it passed into the family of Burghersh, and Robert de Burghersh, constable of Dover castle, died possessed of this manor of Bocton Olaus in the 34th year of that reign, whose son Stephen, in the 1st year of Edward II obtained a charter of free-warren in all his demesne lands within it. To him succeeded Bartholomew, lord Bughersh, constable of Dover Castle, lord warden, and chamberlain of the king's household. In the 12th, and in the 16th years of Edward III. he had the charter of free-warren renewed for all his lands. (fn. 1) His son Bartholomew, lord Burghersh, about the 43d year of king Edward III. passed away this manor by sale, with much other land in this county and in Warwickshire, to Sir Walter de Paveley, K.G. who spelt his name both Paveley and Pavalli, and bore for his arms, Azure, a cross story, or, as they are now on the roof of Canterbury cloisters. After the death of whose grandson Walter, in the 4th year of king Richard II. it was found by inquisition, that this manor, with the advowson of the church of Bocton Aluph, descended by the entail of it to Thomas de Aldon, as his next heir, who became accordingly possessed of it, and afterwards alienated it to Sir Thomas Trivet, whose widow Elizabeth died possessed of it in the 12th year of king Henry VI. and was succeeded by Elizabeth, then wife of Edward Nevill, lord Bergavenny, fourth son of Ralph, earl of Westmoreland; as her next heir, and the entitled her husband above-mentioned to the possession of it. After her death he remarried Catherine, daughter of Sir Robert Howard, and died anno 19 Edward IV. being then possessed as tenant by the courtesy of England, of this manor among others of the inheritance of Elizabeth his first wife. His eldest son Sir George Nevill, lord Bergavenny; seems to have sold this manor to Sir Thomas Kempe, of Ollantigh, whose youngest son Thomas, bishop of London, died possessed of it in the 4th year of king Henry VII. leaving his nephew Sir Thomas Kempe his next heir, whose descendant Sir Thomas Kempe, of Ollantigh, about the latter and of queen Elizabeth's reign, alienated it to Finch, of Eastwell, in whose successors, earls of Winchelsea, it descended down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who, by will in 1769, devised this manor to George Finch Hatton, esq. of Eastwell, the present owner of it.

 

SEATON is a small manor in this parish, which was held by knight's service in grand sergeantry, to provide one man, called a vautrer, to lead three greyhounds when the king should go into Gascony, until he had worn out a pair of shoes of the price of four-pence, bought at the king's cost; (fn. 2) by which service John de Criol, younger son of Bertram, held it at his death in the 48th year of king Henry III. whose grand-daughter Joane becoming heir to her brother's inheritance, who died s. p. she carried this manor in marriage to Sir Richard de Rokesle, who was found to hold it by the like service, in the 11th year of king Edward II. His eldest daughter and coheir Agnes married Thomas de Poynings, and entitled him to the possession of it. In whose descendants it continued till Alianore, daughter of Richard de Poynings, marrying Henry, lord Percy, eldest son of Henry, earl of Northamberland, he, in her right, became entitled to this manor among her other great inheritance in this county and elsewhere; and in his descendants this manor continued down to Henry, VIII. earl of Northamberland, (fn. 3) who, in the 23d year of Henry VIII. conveyed it to feoffees, who soon afterwards passed it away by sale to Sir Christopher Hales, afterwards knighted, and the king's attorney-general, whose lands were disgavelled by the act of the 31st year of Henry VIII. He died possessed of it in the 33d year of that reign, holding it of the king, as of his castle of Dover, by knight's service. He left three daughters his coheirs, who joined in the sale of it to Sir Thomas Moyle, of Eastwell, and chancellor of the king's court of augmentation, whose daughter and coheir Catherine, carried it in marriage to Sir Thomas Finch, of Eastwell, (fn. 4) in whose descendants, earls of Winchelsea, this manor continued down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who dying in 1769, without male issue, gave it, together with his other estates in this county, to his nephew George Finch Hatton, esq. now of Eastwell, the present proprietor of it.

 

BARTON is a manor here, the mansion of which stood on the west side of the Ashford road, in the borough of Socombe, almost opposite to Buckwell, but it has been pulled down some years, and there is now only a barn on the scite of it. It was once part of the possessions of the family of Leyborne, of Leyborne, one of whom, Roger de Leyborne, died possessed of it in the 56th year of king Henry III. and in this name it continued till Juliana de Leyborne, daughter of Thomas, became the sole heir of their possessions, from the greatness of which, she was usually stiled the Infanta of Kent, who, though she had three husbands, all of whom she survived, yet she died s. p. in the 41st year of king Edward III. (fn. 5) Upon which this manor, among the rest of her estates, escheated to the crown, there being no one found who could make claim to her estates, by direct or even by collateral alliance. After which this manor continued in the crown, till king Richard II. vested it in feoffees in trust, towards the endowment of St. Stephen's chapel, at Westminister, which he had in his 22d year completed and made collegiate, and had the year before granted to the dean and canons of this manor, among others, in mortmain. In which situation it continued till the 1st year of king Edward VI. when this college was, with all its possessions, surrendered into the king's hands, who soon afterwards granted this manor to Sir Thomas Moyle, of Eastwell, and he parted with it to his brother Walter Moyle, esq. who afterwards resided at Buckwell, in this parish; and in his descendants, resident at Buckwell, this manor continued, till John Moyle, esq. of Buckwell, leaving Mary his sole daughter and heir, she carried it in marriage to Robert Breton, esq. of the Elmes, near Dover, who died possessed of it in 1708, and his son, Moyle Breton, esq. of Kennington, about the year 1730, sold this manor to Thomas May, afterwards Knight, esq. of Godmersham, whose son Tho. Knight, esq. of Godmersham, dying in 1794, s.p. gave it by will to his widow Mrs. Catherine Knight, but she has since resigned it to Edward Austen, esq. of Godmersham park, who is the present owner of it.

 

BUCKWELL, which was once accounted a manor, is situated at a small distance from Barton last-mentioned, though on the opposite side of the road. It was, in the reign of the Conqueror, part of those estates which were given to William de Arsick, for his assistance in the desence of Dover castle, and made up, with them, the barony of Arsick, being held of it, as one knight's fee, by barony, as of the castle of Dover, to which it owed ward and service. Of him and his heirs this manor was again held by the family of Leyborne, one of whom, Roger de Leyborne, died possessed of it in the 56th year of Henry III. and was succeeded in it by William his son; but when it passed from this name, I have not found; but soon afterwards, the manor of Buckwell, and the mansion of it, seem to have been Separated, and in the possession of different owners; for the manor itself became the property of Robert de Burghersh, constable of Dover castle, and likewise lord warden, whose descendant Bartholomew, lord Burghersh, about the 43d year of king Edward III. conveyed it, with other land in this parish and elsewhere, to Sir Walter de Paveley, one of whose descendants passed it away to Sir Robert Belknap, chief justice of the common pleas, who in the 11th year of that reign was attainted, and banished to Ireland, and though he was afterwards permitted to return in the 20th year of it, yet his attainder still continued, and his lands remained forfeited as before, (fn. 6) and this manor remained in the crown till that king vested it in feoffees in trust, towards the endowment of St. Stephen's chapel, in Westminster, in the possession of the dean and canons, of which it remained till the suppression of that college in the 1st year of king Edward VI. when it came into the hands of the crown, whence it was granted to John Moyle, whose ancestors, resident at the mansion of Buckwell, had likewise been leffees of this manor under the deans and canons for some generations.

 

Mention has been made above, that the mansion of Buckwell had, before the reign of king Edward I. been separated from the manor itself; accordingly I find, that in the 8th year of king Edward III. William de la Hay died possessed of it, and that soon afterwards it became the property of a family who assumed their name from it, being usually called Bekewell. Henry de Bekewell appears by the escheat-rolls to have died possessed of it in the 10th year of that reign, as did his descendant, of the same name, in the 17th year of king Richard II. After this family was extinct here, this seat became the property of Wode, and remained so till the 34th year of Henry VI. and then Robert Wode passed it away by sale to Walter Moyle, ancestor of John Moyle, esq. of this place, who had the grant of the manor of Buckwell from king Edward VI. as be fore-mentioned. The Moyles were descended from Thomas Moyle, of Bodmin, in Cornwall, whose grandson Sir Walter, third son of Henry, was of Eastwell, and purchaser of this estate, as before-mentioned. His eldest son John had several sons, of whom John was father of Ralph Moyle, who died at Eastwell in 1582. Walter was of Buckwell, and ancestor of the Moyles of this place; and Thomas, who was knighted, and was of Eastwell, left two daughters his coheirs, married to Finch and Kempe. They bore for their arms, Gules, a mule passant, within a bordure, argent. There are many memorials of them in both the chancels of this church. (fn. 7) In the descendants of John Moyle, resident at Buckwell, this manor and seat continued till Mary, sole daughter and heir of John Moyle, esq. carried both of them in marriage to Robert Breton, esq. of the Elmes, near Dover, whose son Moyle Breton, esq. of Kennington, about the year 1730, being enabled so to do by an act passed for this purpose, sold them, with other adjoining estates, to Thomas May, afterwards Knight, esq. of Godmersham, and his only son and heir Thomas Knight, esq. of that place, on his death, s. p. in 1794, gave them by will to his widow, Mrs. Catherine Knight, who likewise resigned them to Edward Austen, esq. of Godmersham, the present owner of them.

 

Wilmington, called likewise antiently Wilmingdon, is a manor which lies at the southern part of this parish, on the Ashford road likewise. It gives name to the borough in which it stands, and to the hamlet of houses which stand round about it. Robert de Wilmington held this manor in the reign of Henry III. in grand sergeantry, of the honor of Bolegne, by the service of being the earl's cook, it being then valued at two marcs. His descendant Bertram de Wilmington, died possessed of it in the 12th year of Edward II. when it was found by inquisition, that he held it of the king in capite, by the service of finding for the king one pot-hook for his meat, whenever he should come within the manor of Boughton Aluph. (fn. 8) His descendant, of the same name, died possessed of it in the 6th year of king Henry V. After which it came into the possession of John Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, who was possessed of it in the 2d year of Edward IV. On his death the great inheritance of the Mowbrays came to the descendants of his two sisters and coheirs, and in the division of it John, lord Howard, in right of his mother Margaret, the eldest of them, became entitled to this manor. He was one of the most illustrious noblemen of his time, and having continued faithful to the house of York, he remained no less stedfast to the interest of king Richard III. who created him duke of Norsolk, earl marshal and lord admiral of England. But he did not enjoy these honors long; for he was next year slain in the battle of Bosworth, fighting on the king's behalf, and in the 1st year of Henry VII. he was attainted in parliament, and this manor, among his other possessions, became confiscated to the crown; (fn. 9) whence it was afterwards granted to Moyle, in which name it continued till the beginning of Edward VI.'s reign, when by Catherine, daughter and coheir of Sir Thomas Moyle, of Eastwell, it went in marriage to Sir Thomas Finch, of that parish, who died in 1563, and she remarrying with Nicholas St. Leger, esq. of Beamstone, in Westwell, entitled him to it for her life. She died in 1586, on which it came to her son Sir Moyle Finch, bart. in whose descendants, earl of Winchelsea, it descended down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who at his death in 1769, devised it to his nephew George Finch Hatton, esq. now of Eastwell, the present owner of it.

 

But Part Of The Demesne Lands of this manor were sold off, about the year 1713, to the Rev. Hilkiah Bedford, publisher of the bereditary Right of the Crown of England asserted, whose eldest son William Bedford M.D. whose daughter Elizabeth marrying Mr. Claxton, of Shirley, in Surry, has entitled him to the possession of it.

 

ANOTHER PART of this estate, now called Little Wilmington, in the reign of king Henry VI. was in the possession of Richard Sandys, who alienated it to John Barough, who resided at it, and died possessed of it in the 1st year of king Edward IV. One of his descendants, Richard Barrowe, resided here in the reigns of king Elizabeth and James I. and died in the 6th year of the latter, leaving three sons, Robert, Richard, and William, to which last he devised his house and lands in Borden, and from him descended the Barrows of that parish. To Robert Barrow, his eldest son, he devised this estate of Little Wilmington, and in his descendants it continued, till it was at length sold to Knott, and from that name again to Dr. William Egerton, prebendary of Canterbury, who died possessed of it in 1728, leaving two daughters his coheirs, and his widow surviving, upon whose death it came to Jemima, widow of Edward Bridges, esq. of Wotton, one of the above-mentioned coheirs, and William Hammond, esq. of St. Albans, the eldest son of William Hammond, esq. of that place, by Charlotte the other coheir; and upon a division made, this estate was allotted to Mrs. Bridges above-mentioned, now of Canterbury, and she is the present possessor of it.

 

MARDOL MANOR is the last place to be mentioned in this parish, lying on the south side of it. This manor was antiently the patrimony of the Corbies in which it continued till Robert Corbie, in the reign of king Richard II. leaving an only daughter and heir Joane, she carried it, among the rest of her inheritance, to Sir Nicholas Wotton, whose descendant Thomas Wotton, esq. in the reign of queen Elizabeth, passed it away by sale to Sprott, from which name, in the reign of king Charles I. it was alienated to Thomas Finch, earl of Winchelsea, in whose descendants it continued down to Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, who in 1769, gave it by will, with the rest of his estates in this county, to his nephew George Finch Hatton, esq. now the present owner of it.

 

Charities.

MR. JOHN BOUGHTON, vicar, left to this parish by will, in 1642, 30s. per annum to such poor as had great charge of children, aged and incapable to work, to be distributed on the Thursday in Whitsun-week; and to the churchwardens and overseers, 10s. per annum, for a sermon to be preached on that day, to be paid out of house and land on Boughton lees.

 

MR. THOMAS KEEPS left by will in 1780, 20s. per annum to the use of the poor, out of a field in Great Chart, rented at 6l. per annum, the remainder of the rent being left to five other parishes.

 

MR. WILLIAM CROW left by will in 1770, to this parish, the sum of 90l. to be put into the public funds, the amount of the profits of it to be yearly distributed by the owners of Eastwell-place, among such honest and well disposed poor aged men and women, especially widows, as they should consider real objects of charity; but not to persons receiving alms, in relief of the parish.

 

There is an alms-house belonging to this parish, on Boughtonlees, containing six dwellings.

 

The poor constantly relieved are about 15, casually 20.

 

BOUGHTON ALUPH is within the ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION of the diocese of Canterbury, and deanry of Bridge.

 

The church, which is dedicated to All Saints, is large and handsome, built of slint, with ashlar stone to the doors, windows, and quoins. It consists of three isles and two chancels. The steeple is a large low tower, standing on four pillars in the middle of it. There are five bells in it, and at the south-east corner, adjoining to the tower, is a large square addition, in which is a stone stair-case. Both the chancels did belong to the Buckwell estate; but the family of Breton having buried in both since their sale of it, without Mr. Knight's permission, he refused to repair them, and they are now repaired by Mr. Breton. In the great chancel, within the rails, is a monument for Thomas Austen, esq. obt. 1637. In this and the north chancel are many gravestones of the Moiles and Bretons. In the north chancel is a handsome monument of marble, for Amy, wife of Josias Clerk, gent. of Essex, daughter of John Moyle, esq. of Buckwell, obt. 1631, having the effigies of her lying at full length, and of her three children kneeling at her head and feet, in full proportion, under a canopy. In the middle isle is a memorial for John Mascall, esq. obt. 1769; arms, Two bars, over all, three escutcheons ermine, impaling a saltier, and on it a crescent, for difference; and there are memorials for others likewise of the same family.

 

The church of Boughton Aluph, as has been already mentioned before, was antiently an appendage to the manor, and continued so in the 4th year of Richard II. when Sir Walter Pavely died possessed of the same, and it was found that Sir Thomas de Aldon was his next heir. How long afterwards it continued in his heirs I have not found; but in the reign of Henry VI. the advowson of this rectory was become the property of cardinal John Kempe, archbishop of York, who settled it on his new-founded college of Wye, and in the 29th year of that reign the master and chaplains of it had the king's licence to receive this advowson from the cardinal, and to appropriate the rectory of it to themselves; (fn. 10) and a vicarage was endowed here. In which situation it remained till the suppression of the college, in the 36th year of Henry VIII. when it was surrendered into the king's hands, who that year granted this church, with the presentation of the vicarage of it, among other premises, to Walter Bucler, esq. to hold in capite, with certain provisos for the maintenance of the curates and schoolmaster of Wye; which grant, on his non-performance of these conditions, became forfeited, and king Charles I. in his 2d and 5th years, granted the same premises, with the proviso for the payment of certain stipends to the before-mentioned curate and schoolmaster, to Robert Maxwell, from whose heirs this rectory and advowson was afterwards sold to Moyle, of Buckwell, in which name it continued till Mary, daughter and sole heir of John Moyle, esq. of Buckwell, carried them in marriage to Robert Breton, esq. of the Elmes, near Dover, who died possessed of them in 1708, and his great grandson the Rev. Moyle Breton, of Kennington, is the present owner of the parsonage appropriate of Boughton, with the advowson of the vicarage of this church, who pays twenty pounds per annum from it towards the stipends of the curate and schoolmaster of Wye, as stipulated in Robert Maxwell's patent, the several premises granted in it being now in different hands as has been already more fully mentioned before.

 

It is valued in the king's books at 6l. 5s. the yearly tenths being 12s. 6d. but it is now of the clear yearly certified value (delivered in 1752) of 58l. 6s. 10d.

 

In 1578 here were communicants one hundred and fifty-four; in 1640, one hundred and seventy-seven. It is now worth about eighty pounds per annum. There are twenty three acres of glebe belonging to it.

 

There was a composition in 1305 entered into between the rector of Westwell and Stephen de Wilmington, rector of this church, concerning the tithes of the hamlets of Shotingdon, Chilberton, and Wike.

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol7/pp384-398

A priest — whoever he may be — is always another Christ.

 

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After the points on spiritual direction and the spiritual director, point 66 begins a series of ten considerations on the subject of priests, to whom the faithful normally turn for advice about their spiritual life. St. Josemaría's particular perspective on this was that the faithful need to capture the 'mystery' of the priest in the Church, and treat priests with respect and veneration as a result. These points were written for the lay faithful.

 

It is interesting, then, to see what he was saying to priests – or future priests – while he was writing these points of The Way. Pedro Casciaro states: "From the time he decided to become a priest, he considered the priesthood as a mission of service to God, the Church and mankind. It could be summarized in what he told me when he first asked me if I would be willing to become a priest. Pointing to a modest strip of red carpet which covered the altar-step of the oratory of the Ferraz Residence in Madrid, he said, 'A priest has to be like that carpet. Over it the body of our Lord is consecrated. It's at the altar, it's true, but it is there to be of use. Furthermore, it is there so that everyone else can have something soft to tread on, and you see how it does not complain, it does not protest... Do you understand what the service of a priest is?'"

 

The text of point 66 comes from Notebook 6: "Feast of St. John of the Cross, 24 November 1932: The priest – whoever he may be – is always another Christ." Here St. Josemaría was doing no more than summarize the doctrine and terminology of Catholic tradition concerning priests. Pope St. Pius X had expressed this tradition in precise terms in 1908: "If the priest is called another Christ," and is truly such by reason of his sharing in Christ's power, should he not also become and be recognized as another Christ through imitation of Christ's deeds?"

 

The expression has two senses in spiritual and theological literature, perfectly encompassed in St. Pius X's text. St. Josemaría uses it here (and in the next point) in what we could call the "indicative" or "sacramental theological" sense, which is first in the papal text, and which already appears in The Way; and to underline this sacramental meaning, he adds between parenthesis "whoever he may be," that is to say, that the 'alter Christus' (in this first sense) does not depend on the degree of holiness of the priest.

 

(The Second Vatican Council has preferred to express this "sacramental theological" content using another traditional expression: that the priest acts 'in persona Christi.' St. Josemaría uses both formulae in his writings.)

 

But spiritual authors and the later Magisterium also use the adage 'sacerdos alter Christus' in a derived sense, which is second in St. Pius X's text, and which we could called "imperative" or "spiritually theological": demanding that the priest be and live like Christ, "being another Christ" for the others. Clearly the imperative sense is founded on the indicative sense.

 

St. Josemaría felt the need to transmit all this to the faithful, and especially the sacramental-theological meaning behind it, to help them to understand and respect priests (even those who were personally not very worthy of respect). This urgency to transmit to others the mystery of the priesthood has to be taken in conjunction with the renewed self-awareness of his own priesthood, which was granted to him during the retreat he had made in Segovia the month before he wrote this point. There he made a list of eleven resolutions, and the ninth was:

 

"To recall frequently that I am ... 'alter Christus' (another Christ)!"

 

(In this very brief point the hidden play on the two theological concepts of 'sacerdos alter Christus,' is clear; St. Josemaría is proposing here to remind one of what is in the sacramental-theological field so as to be demanding on oneself and to try to be one in the existential plane.)

 

This sense of respect for priests, based on the objective sacramental mystery which they carry within themselves, already appeared, though expressed differently, in a note written two years earlier, whose starting-point was the fact that all priests are one and the same person: they are Christ.

 

"Because this will be another characteristic of the Work of God: the profound veneration and respect which all its members show, in word, in deed, and in interior feelings, for all priests, whatever the religious family they belong to, whatever nation, whatever race: because the priest – in the end – is always one and the same: Christ."

 

(Veneration for the priests – whether secular or religious – is a characteristic of Opus Dei, whose spirit is eminently lay: "the social reality, the spirituality and the action of Opus Dei fit into a quite different vein in the life of the Church. They are in the theological and vital process which is bringing the laity to assume its responsibilities in the Church fully, and to participate in its own way in the mission of Christ and his Church.")

 

In his 1933 retreat in Madrid, he wrote:

 

"Goal of the priest: 'Alter Christus'... on the Cross. To save souls." Catholic tradition of the priesthood has always been the sacramental reality insofar as it provides the foundation for and demands apostolic dedication.

 

St. Josemaría, delving into the original sense of Baptism, which configures the whole of Christian existence, later came to the conclusion – as has been noted in the commentary to point 2 – that the "alter Christus" both in its sacramental (indicative) sense, and its spiritual (imperative) sense, was valid for a Christian as such. The topic is introduced in The Way – see point 687, which is in the spiritual theological plane – and which is made clear in later writings:

 

"God's call, the character conferred by Baptism, and grace mean that every single Christian can and should be a living expression of the faith. Every Christian should be 'another Christ, Christ himself, present among men."

 

And in his homily entitled 'The Christian Vocation,' this doctrine is, as it were, the synthesis of such a vocation. He ends the homily saying:

 

"Our Lady, Holy Mary, will make of you 'alter Christus, ipse Christus': another Christ, Christ himself!"

 

He also offers us a formula to understand the different ways of being 'alter Christus' in a priest and in the other faithful:

 

"Some people keep searching for what they call the identity of the priest... What is the identity of the priest? That of Christ. All of us Christians can and should be not just other Christs, 'alter Christus,' but Christ himself: 'ipse Christus'! But in the priest this happens in a direct way, by virtue of the sacrament."

 

The 'alter Christus' is, for St. Josemaría, the sacramental configuration which is the effect of the sacrament of Orders:

 

"I am, on the one hand, a member of the faithful like the others; but, above all, I am Christ at the Altar! I am renewing in an unbloody manner the divine Sacrifice of Calvary and I am consecrating, 'in persona Christi,' in the person of Christ. I really represent Jesus Christ, for I am lending him my body, my voice, my hands and my poor heart, so often stained, which I want Him to purify."

 

See point 947, where St. Josemaría also introduces the topic of 'ipse Christus,' identification with Christ.

 

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[excerpted from "The Way: Critical-historical edition," prepared by P. Rodriguez of the Josemaría Escrivá Historical Institute]

 

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Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama,[note 3] Shakyamuni,[note 4] or simply the Buddha, was a sage[3] on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[web 2] He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in eastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.[4][note 5]

 

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age.[note 6] Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement[5] common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.[4][6]

 

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era in India during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatshatru who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain teacher.[7] Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential sramana schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jain, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahāvīra, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by.[8][9][note 7] There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques.[10] While the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true,[11] most scholars do not consistently accept all of the details contained in traditional biographies.[12][13]

 

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE.[1][14] More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.[1][15][note 5] These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.[20][21][note 9]

 

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[23] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.[23] According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in Kapilavastu, which may either be in present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 1] He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagara.

 

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One edict of Emperor Ashoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edict mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Mauryan era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon.[34][note 11] The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gāndhārī language on twenty-seven birch bark scrolls, and they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.[web 10]The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.[35] Of these, the Buddhacarita[36][37][38] is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE.[35] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.[39] The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.[39] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra,[40] and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the Nidānakathā is from the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoṣa.[41]

 

From canonical sources, the Jātakas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts.[42] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".[43][44][45] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

 

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:[46]

 

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.

 

The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[47] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[48] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[11]The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, present-day Nepal, to be the birthplace of the Buddha.[49][note 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note 1] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India,[32] or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal.[50] Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.[50]

 

Siddharta Gautama was born as a Kshatriya,[51][note 13] the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan",[4] whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,[53][54] and ten months later[55] Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

 

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[56] Buddha's birth anniversary holiday is called "Buddha Purnima" in Nepal and India as Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.[57] By traditional account,[which?] this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[57] Kaundinya (Pali: Kondañña), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[58]

 

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

 

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.[59] The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[60] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.[61]Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[62] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

 

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.[62]According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 11] after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 11]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.[web 11] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 12] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 12]

 

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[70] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[70][web 13] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

 

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths",[web 13] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[web 13] or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

 

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan — who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

 

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

 

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

 

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

 

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

 

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

 

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

 

The Buddha is said to have replied:

 

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

 

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

 

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

 

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.

 

The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.Dhyana and insight[edit]

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight.[82][95][84] Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[85][81][82]

‘Art for Peace Exhibition’ in Baghdad: Expressions of Peace, Reconciliation and Hope

 

Baghdad, 3 March 2017 - The beauty of Iraq truly stems from the roots of the country’s rich, historical culture. Despite the fact that Iraq is currently embroiled in a battle to weed out the terrorist group Daesh from its soil and the fact that Baghdad has to endure the brunt of frequent bombings and terrorist attacks, Iraq boasts a rather vibrant, elegant, expressive, artistic and peaceful cultural scene. It is this part of Iraq that brings together people from all walks of life - irrespective of age, creed, colour, race, or gender - in the spirit of oneness, an energetic spirit that binds one another to appreciate the peace, joy, comfort and neutrality that art brings to one’s imagination. The Art for Peace Exhibition in Baghdad, organised by the United Nations Mission for Iraq (UNAMI), in partnership with the National Reconciliation Committee of the Prime Minister’s office, could not have made this notion any clearer.

 

Held on Friday 03 March 2017 in the courtyard of the Baghdadi Cultural Centre located in the heart of Al-Mutannabi Street - one of the oldest and best known streets in Baghdad and affectionately referred to as the historical literary jewel in the city - over 70 paintings, caricatures, and photographs by Iraqi artists were on display. While each artist used a different medium of expression, the unifying factor was that each admirable simple piece of work expressed hope for peace among all the people in Iraq, and the yearning of peace and reconciliation for the future to build a free and flourishing world for generations to come. The Iraqi painters, photographers and caricaturists who participated in this first-ever Art for Peace project were commissioned to produce works that portrayed their messages for peaceful coexistence and harmony, reconciliation and hope.

The event itself is a stark illustration of the resilience of Iraqis who are enduring a devastating conflict with the terrorist Daesh group which is in its last throes in Mosul, and a terrorist bombing campaign that is deliberately targeting civilians in Baghdad and elsewhere. It shows that despite the ongoing conflict in Iraq, art remains the language that brings people together in peace and reconciliation. It also serves to counter the destruction by Daesh of historic sites and work of art work in the areas they controlled.

 

At the exhibition, the Deputy Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General for Iraq (DSRSG) for Political and Electoral Affairs, Mr. György Busztin, reiterated the importance of art in disseminating messages of peace, reconciliation, tolerance and coexistence. “Such endeavours by talented Iraqi artists, illustrators, painters and photographers transcends ethnic and sectarian differences and constitute the bedrock for an inclusive national reconciliation that will usher in the stability and prosperity for all Iraqis”.

 

Raed Hassan, a young Iraqi caricaturist spends his time drawing images that are graphic and emotional but which carry explicit messages. He easily narrates how “having a peaceful Iraq is all that he wants, especially for the future of his children”. Mr. Hassan pointed to one of his images – one in which there is a long queue of people, albeit mostly men, who seem to be in despair and a prominent syringe jutting into the leader’s head, inscribed with the words “Peace”. Mr. Hassan is very attached to this piece of work and in probing him for a reason, he simply states: “Study the caricature carefully and see the simplicity of it all – all we need in Iraq is for everyone to inject the idea of peace in their minds, to be rid of all the evil and harmful notions, and to thus clean our minds and hearts so that ‘peace’ can filter into every vein and bone in our bodies”.

 

“What could be more powerful than this?” he asks.

As the winter clouds gave way to a clear blue sunny sky, the colours on the oil paintings on display were easily entwined in the warmth of the sun’s rays. Mohammed Musayir stood patiently next to his paintings, many of which portrayed his thoughts on reconciliation among all Iraqis. The one painting that stood out depicted tolerance of faith, with Mohammed saying that “faith has no face – which is why the lady in my painting has no face. She could represent Islam by the Abaya she adorns, or she could tell the story of Christianity with the Holy Cross laid across her face. In the background, I have the places of worship for both faiths – open and inviting for all who choose to unite and live in peace, dignity and harmony”.

 

As Mr. Musayer shares his hopes for peaceful coexistence in Iraq, his thoughts are a reminder that engaging in dialogue, creating awareness and promoting tolerance and acceptance among peoples of different faiths, beliefs and cultures are key stepping stones towards building a hopeful and peaceful society in Iraq and across the globe.

 

After Baghdad, the Art for Peace travelling exhibition will be on display throughout March and April 2017 in the following Iraqi governorates: Babil, Karbala, Thi-Qar, Missan, Basrah, Diyala, Salah Al-din and Erbil.

 

Source and photos: UNAMI PIO

"The next sabbath almost the whole town assembled to hear the word of God. When they saw the crowds, the Jews, prompted by jealousy, used blasphemies and contradicted everything Paul said. Then Paul and Barnabas spoke out boldly. ‘We had to proclaim the word of God to you first, but since you have rejected it, since you do not think yourselves worthy of eternal life, we must turn to the pagans. For this is what the Lord commanded us to do when he said:

I have made you a light for the nations,

so that my salvation may reach the ends of the earth.’

It made the pagans very happy to hear this and they thanked the Lord for his message; all who were destined for eternal life became believers. Thus the word of the Lord spread through the whole countryside.

But the Jews worked upon some of the devout women of the upper classes and the leading men of the city and persuaded them to turn against Paul and Barnabas and expel them from their territory. So they shook the dust from their feet in defiance and went off to Iconium; but the disciples were filled with joy and the Holy Spirit."

– Acts 13:44-52, which is today's 1st reading at Mass (4th Sun of Easter).

 

My homily for today can be read here.

 

Stained glass window from the former Dominican church in River Forest, IL.

Not so long ago, the main road from Dover to Sandwich passed right through the centre of Easty. Its narrow roads lined with parked cars must have been quite a bottle neck. But now the main road goes round and the cars can park was their owners want.

 

I visited Eastry many years ago, early in the Kent church project. So I am revisiting those first churches to see what I missed now I have a little knowledge of church architecture.

 

We park in the centre on the main road and walk down the dead end street to the church. It looks fine in the spring sunshine, flints glistening. It sits surrounded by gfand houses, most of which are listed.

 

Entrance is via a unique porch in the west end of the church, under the tower, where a porch has been fashioned from carved wood and leaded lights.

 

Upon entering you are greeted by the glory of the church, the chancel arch festooned with panels showing four different designs, but my eye is taken by the two quatrefoil cut outs either side.

 

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Set away from the main street but on one of the earliest sites in the village, flint-built Eastry church has an over restored appearance externally but this gives way to a noteworthy interior. Built in the early thirteenth century by its patrons, Christ Church Canterbury, it was always designed to be a statement of both faith and power. The nave has a clerestory above round piers whilst the east nave wall has a pair of quatrefoils pierced through into the chancel. However this feature pales into insignificance when one sees what stands between them - a square panel containing 35 round paintings in medallions. There are four deigns including the Lily for Our Lady; a dove; Lion; Griffin. They would have formed a backdrop to the Rood which would have been supported on a beam the corbels of which survive below the paintings. On the centre pier of the south aisle is a very rare feature - a beautifully inscribed perpetual calendar or `Dominical Circle` to help find the Dominical letter of the year. Dating from the fourteenth century it divides the calendar into a sequence of 28 years. The reredos is an alabaster structure dating from the Edwardian period - a rather out of place object in a church of this form, but a good piece of work in its own right. On the west wall is a good early 19th century Royal Arms with hatchments on either side and there are many good monuments both ledger slabs and hanging tablets. Of the latter the finest commemorates John Harvey who died in 1794. It shows his ship the Brunswick fighting with all guns blazing with the French ship the Vengeur. John Bacon carved the Elder this detailed piece of work.

 

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Eastry

 

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Above the Chancel Arch, enclosed within a rectangular frame, are rows of seven "medallion" wall paintings; the lower group was discovered in 1857 and the rest in 1903. They remained in a rather dilapidated state until the Canterbury Cathedral Wall Paintings Department brought them back to life.

 

The medallions are evidently of the 13th Century, having been painted while the mortar was still wet. Each medallion contains one of four motifs:

 

The trefoil flower, pictured left, is perhaps a symbol of the Blessed Virgin Mary to whom the church is dedicated; or symbolic of Christ.

 

The lion; symbolic of the Resurrection

  

Doves, either singly, or in pairs, represent the Holy Spirit

  

The Griffin represents evil, over which victory is won by the power of the Resurrection and the courage of the Christian.

 

www.ewbchurches.org.uk/eastrychurchhistory.htm

 

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All Saints, Gazeley, Suffolk.

 

There was never any doubt I would go to Rob's funeral. Rob was born just two weeks before me, and in our many meetings, we found we had so much in common.

 

A drive to Ipswich should be something like only two and a half hours, but with the Dartford Crossing that could balloon to four or more.

 

My choice was to leave early, soon after Jools left for work, or wait to near nine once rush hour was over. If I was up early, I'd leave early, I said.

 

Which is what happened.

 

So, after coffee and Jools leaving, I loaded my camera stuff in the car, not bothering to program in a destination, as I knew the route to Suffolk so well.

 

Checking the internet I found the M2 was closed, so that meant taking the M20, which I like as it runs beside HS2, although over the years, vegetation growth now hides most of it, and with Eurostar cutting services due to Brexit, you're lucky to see a train on the line now.

 

I had a phone loaded with podcasts, so time flew by, even if travelling through the endless roadworks at 50mph seemed to take forever.

 

Dartford was jammed. But we inched forward, until as the bridge came in sight, traffic moved smoothly, and I followed the traffic down into the east bore of the tunnel.

 

Another glorious morning for travel, the sun shone from a clear blue sky, even if traffic was heavy, but I had time, so not pressing on like I usually do, making the drive a pleasant one.

 

Up through Essex, where most other traffic turned off at Stanstead, then up to the A11 junction, with it being not yet nine, I had several hours to fill before the ceremony.

 

I stopped at Cambridge services for breakfast, then programmed the first church in: Gazeley, which is just in Suffolk on the border with Cambridgeshire.

 

I took the next junction off, took two further turnings brought be to the village, which is divided by one of the widest village streets I have ever seen.

 

It was five past nine: would the church be open?

 

I parked on the opposite side of the road, grabbed my bag and camera, limped over, passing a warden putting new notices in the parish notice board. We exchange good mornings, and I walk to the porch.

 

The inner door was unlocked, and the heavy door swung after turning the metal ring handle.

 

I had made a list of four churches from Simon's list of the top 60 Suffolk churches, picking those on or near my route to Ipswich and which piqued my interest.

 

Here, it was the reset mediaeval glass.

 

Needless to say, I had the church to myself, the centuries hanging heavy inside as sunlight flooded in filling the Chancel with warm golden light.

 

Windows had several devotional dials carved in the surrounding stone, and a huge and "stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast" which caught my eye.

 

A display in the Chancel was of the decoration of the wooden roof above where panels contained carved beats, some actual and some mythical.

 

I photographed them all.

 

----------------------------------------------------

 

All Saints is a large, remarkably good church in one of the sleepy, fat villages along the Cambridgeshire border, the sort of place you cycle through and imagine wistfully that you've won the lottery and could move there. The wide churchyard on both sides is a perfect setting for the church, which rises to heaven out of a perpendicular splendour of aisles, clerestories and battlements. The tower was complete by the 1470s when money was being left for a bell. The earlier chancel steadies the ship, anchoring it to earth quietly, although the tall east window has its spectacular moment too. And you step into a deliciously well-kept interior, full of interest.

One of the most significant medieval survivals here is not easily noticed. This is the range of 15th Century glass, which was reset by the Victorians high in the clerestory. This seems a curious thing to have done, since it defeats the purpose of a clerestory, but if they had not done so then we might have lost it. The glass matches the tracery in the north aisle windows, so that is probably where they came from. There are angels, three Saints and some shields, most of which are heraldic but two show the instruments of the passion and the Holy Trinity. I would not be surprised to learn that some of the shields are 19th century, but the figures are all original late 15th or early 16th century. The Saints are an unidentified Bishop, the hacksaw-wielding St Faith and one of my favourites, St Apollonia. She it was who was invoked by medieval people against toothache.

 

Waling from the nave up into the chancel, the space created by the clearing of clutter makes it at once mysterious and beautiful. Above, the early 16th century waggon roof is Suffolk's best of its kind. Mortlock points out the little angels bearing scrolls, the wheat ears and the vine sprays, and the surviving traces of colour. The low side window on the south side still has its hinges, for here it was that updraught to the rood would have sent the candles flickering in the mystical church of the 14th century. On the south side of the sanctuary is an exquisitely carved arched recess, that doesn't appear to have ever had a door, and may have been a very rare purpose-built Easter sepulchre at the time of the 1330s rebuilding. Opposite is a huge and stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast. It is one of the most significant Decorated moments in Suffolk.

 

On the floor of the chancel there is a tiny, perfect chalice brass, one of only two surviving in Suffolk. The other is at Rendham. Not far away is the indent of another chalice brass - or perhaps it was for the same one, and the brass has been moved for some reason. There are two chalice indents at Westhall, but nowhere else in Suffolk. Chalice brasses were popular memorials for Priests in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and thus were fair game for reformers. Heigham memorials of the late 16th century are on the walls. Back in the south aisle there is a splendid tombchest in Purbeck marble. It has lost its brasses, but the indents show us where they were, as do other indents in the aisle floors. Some heraldic brass shields survive, and show that Heighams were buried here. Brass inscriptions survive in the nave and the chancel, dating from the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

 

The 14th century font is a good example of the tracery pattern series that appeared in the decades before the Black Death. They may have been intended to spread ideas at that time of great artistic and intellectual flowering before it was so cruelly snatched away. The cover is 17th Century. At this end of the nave are two good ranges of medieval benches, one, rare in East Anglia, is a group of 14th Century benches with pierced tracery backs. Some of them appear to spell out words, and Mortlock thought one might say Salaman Sayet. The block of benches to the north appears to be 15th Century or possibly early 16th Century. Further north, the early 17th Century benches are simpler, even cruder, and were likely the work of the village carpenter.

 

All rather lovely then. And yet, it hasn't always been that way. All Saints at Gazeley, near Newmarket, was the first church that I visited after an international team of scientists conclusively proved that God did not exist began the first page for this church that I wrote in 2003, in a satirical mood after finding the church locked and at a very low ebb. At a time when congregations were generally falling, I'd been thinking about the future of medieval churches beyond a time when they would have people to use them in the traditional way. I wondered if the buildings might find new uses, or could adapt themselves to changing patterns and emphases in Christianity, or even changing spiritual needs of their parishes. Even if science could somehow prove that God did not exist, I suggested, there were parishes which would rise to the challenge and reinvent themselves, as churches have always done over the two millennia of Christianity. Coming to Gazeley I felt that here was a church which felt as if it had been abandoned. And yet, it seemed to me a church of such significance, such historical and spiritual importance, that its loss would be a disaster. If it had been clean, tidy and open at the time he was visiting, Simon Jenkins England's Thousand Best Churches would not have been able to resist it. Should the survival of such a treasure store depend upon the existence of God or the continued practice of the Christian faith? Or might there be other reasons to keep this extraordinary building in something like its present integrity?

 

In the first decade of the 21st Century, Gazeley church went on a tremendous journey, from being moribund to being the wonderful church you can visit today. If you want to read the slightly adapted 2006 entry for Gazeley, recounting this journey, you can do so here. Coming back here today always fills me with optimism for what can be achieved. On one occasion I mentioned my experiences of Gazeley church to a Catholic Priest friend of mine, and he said he hoped I knew I'd seen the power of the Holy Spirit at work. And perhaps that is so. Certainly, the energy and imagination of the people here have been fired by something. On that occasion I had wanted to find someone to ask about it, to find out how things stood now. But there was no one, and so the building spoke for them.

 

Back outside in the graveyard, the dog daisies clustered and waved their sun-kissed faces in the light breeze. The ancient building must have known many late-May days like this over the centuries, but think of all the changes that it has known inside! The general buffeting of the winds of history still leaves room for local squalls and lightning strikes. All Saints has known these, but for now a blessed calm reigns here. Long may it remain so.

 

Simon Knott, June 2019

 

www.suffolkchurches.co.uk/gazeley.htm

THE GREAT DEBATE: GENDER AND LEADERSHIP

MAKE YOUR MARK IN DEVELOPING A “CHECKLIST FOR ACCOUNTABLE AND RESPONSIVE LEADERSHIP”

We do not have to look too far around us to know that leadership can make or break whole countries. What makes a great leader, and where does gender feature in the checklist for good leadership? During the course of 2009, there will be six elections in Southern Africa: in South Africa, Malawi, Angola, Botswana, Namibia and Mozambique. Read more...

The GMDC is a Southern African partnership between knowledge institutions and media development NGOs for the generation, collection, connection and dissemination of knowledge. In light of the upcoming elections in six Southern African countries, the GMDC plans to provide a forum for a series of on line and face to face debates on Gender and Leadership, culminating in a “Checklist for Accountable and Responsive Leadership.” Click here to contribute to the checklist for accountable and responsive leadership.

Several seminars will be conducted with institutional partners over the next few months. These include:

· 9 Feb: At the launch of the GL/Women in Law Southern Africa (WLSA) study: At the Coalface: Gender and Local Government in Botswana and Zambia.

·12 Feb: A joint leadership debate organised by South Africa-Netherlands Research Programme on Alternatives in Development (SANPAD), Durban University of Technology (DUT) and Gender Links. It will be held on Thursday, 12 February 2009 at 18h00 for 18h30 SA time at DUT. The venue is at the 7th Floor Conference Room, D Block, Centenary Road, Durban . For more information, contact Lethu Kapueja on lethu@sanpad.org.za or call 031 279 3900.

·19 Feb: On the eve of a GMDC advisory group meeting, in partnership with GL and the Gender and Media Southern Africa (GEMSA) Network. For more information, please contact gmdc@genderlinks.org.za or call 011 622 2877.

·9 March: At the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) annual meeting at UN headquarters in New York, GEMSA and GL will convene a cyber dialogue on this theme. GL will also partner with the Mail and Guardian’s Critical Thinking Forum to debate the issue of politics and polygamy. For more information, please contact Sudley Adams on sudleya@mg.co.za

·17 March: During a planning meeting of the Southern Africa Gender Protocol Alliance.

How can you get involved?

·Participate in the scheduled debates.

·Host a Gender and Leadership debate whose outcomes can be added to the checklist! Contact knowledge@genderlinks.org.za.

·Write a commentary for the daily GL Opinion and Commentary Service or a longer article for the next issue of the GMDC Gender and Media Diversity Journal that will be launched on 3 May- World Press Freedom Day. Contact editor@genderlinks.org.za

·Post your comments on what you think makes a good leader by clicking here.

For more information contact gmdc@genderlinks.org.za.

By Derrick Sinjela

THE Anglican Cathedral Corporate Partnership (ACCP) Organizing Committee spearheaded by Canon Charley Thomas and Sub Dean Canon William Vwapu successfully held a fundraising ball ahead of the 50th Anniversary after the construction of the Cathedral of the Holy Cross.

The ACCP Organising Committee held its inaugural annual fundraising event at the Intercontinental Hotel in Lusaka at which Zambian Head of State and Government, His Excellency, President Rupiah Banda, donated K10 million while past immediate first lady, Maureen Mwanawasa pledged K1 million with Bank of Zambia Deputy Governor-Operations Denny Kalyalya pledging K2 million.

The Cathedral Corporate Partnership Ball was held under the theme, “Restoring a National Spiritual Heritage through Partnership”.

A tentative review indicated that close to K200 million was raised by the ACCP Organising Committee whose chairperson, Shem Simuyemba was also awarded a plaque by Priest's Warden David Thompson

The ACCP organising committee awarded gold awards and plaques to Professional Life Assurance, Raubex Construction, Nyiombo Investment Limited and the Bank of Zambia, with Standard Chartered Bank PLC, Harvey Tiles Limited and Agro Fuel receiving silver recognition awards while Zambia Air Force (ZAF), Lusaka Stock Exchange (LuSE), Speciality Foods, National Milling Corporation (NMC), Law Association of Zambia (LAZ), Intermarket Banking Corporation and Office Machines received awards in the bronze category.

Mr. Joseph Kaziya won a weekend for two at Lusaka Hotel, while other prizes included return air tickets courtesy of Zambian Airways and Kenya Airways.

President Banda was accompanied to the ball by his wife, Thandiwe, while British High Commissioners to Zambia, Carolyn Davidson and Thomas Carter also attended.

Council of Churches in Zambia (CCZ) General Secretary Suzanne Matale, and representatives from the Evangelical Fellowship of Zambia and the Zambia Episcopal Conference also attended.

Gracing the occasion President Banda acknowledged the importance of unity of purpose that characterized the desire to restore the dignity of the Anglican Cathedral of the Holy Cross.

Said an affable President Banda: “The Cathedral is more than just a symbol. It is a national spiritual icon and heritage which plays an important role in Zambia's national, State, civic and spiritual affairs. Zambia is one of the few countries in the world to boldly declare itself a Christian Nation and to have this enshrined in its Constitution. The “Christian Nation” status of Zambia validates The Cathedral's role in the nation's spiritual affairs. Indeed spiritual institutions such as the Cathedral and others are and should be a central pillar of our national activities.”

President Banda noted thus: “Thankfully, through God's grace and blessings over this country, Zambia continues to enjoy peace, stability and unity. Hopefully, through God's continued protection, we will never experience the sad situation in some of our African countries where churches had to be used as places of refuge.”

However, President Banda called for concerted efforts in building a united country. “As unpleasant as it is, this is a reality we cannot afford to ignore and which should give us even greater resolve to safeguard our hard earned peace, stability and unity. This requires that the State and Church partner to build a better and safer country for all.

President Banda observed that the MMD Government embraced many of the same virtues as the Church such as integrity, transparency, honesty, hard work, love for neighbour and love for nation.

“These Christian values are virtues that are worth embracing by all of us particularly as a Christian Nation. I therefore urge the Church to partner with us as Government, so that together we can fight some of the evils that are eating away into our society particularly among our youth. These include, idleness, drunkenness, drug abuse and even crime,” said President Banda.

Turning to the theme of this, “Restoring a National Spiritual Heritage through Partnership” President Banda observed it as apt and timely.

“The Partnership is intended to raise funds to refurbish the Cathedral leading up to the Golden Jubilee of the Cathedral to be celebrated in 2012. I therefore urge all of you present, the business community both large and small, diplomatic missions, international organizations and our cooperating partners, as well as families and individuals, to contribute generously to this noble and worthy cause. Remember, blessed is the hand that gives. As Government, we will play our part since we were involved right from the construction phase of The Cathedral. In this regard, I am therefore directing the Honourable Minister of Finance to identify avenues in which as Government, we can provide support to this worthy national cause,” prodded President Banda.

Giving a key not address as Guest Speaker, Bank of Zambia Governor, Dr Caleb Fundanga challenged the corporate world and individual citizenry continue to networking and forging partnerships in support to Church work.

In a speech read on his behalf by BoZ Deputy Governor for Operations, Denny Kalyalya, Dr Fundanga said: “It is said that “A country's character is more important than its cash reserves”. You may agree or disagree with this, but I trust this should provide informed debate and discussion during our dinner tonight and perhaps long after.

We indeed as a Church are excited with this spirit of Lordship which has been passed on from one administration to another. We thank God for this.

Bishop Njovu expressed joy at the unwavering support received from the Zambian Government, and added that the cathedral stood as a symbol of Christ's Lordship over Zambia.

“I thank you personally Government for the moral support we have continued to receive. The Cathedral is therefore, a symbol of Christ's Lordship over Zambia which has now become even more significant with the declaration of Zambia as a Christian nation.

“With the foundation stone having been laid in 1957 by the Queen Mother, The Cathedral is now nearly half a century old. This magnificent national spiritual icon and heritage built through the God inspired vision of people like Bishop Oliver Green Wilkinson is now in dire need of urgent repair and refurbishment,” recalled Bishop Njovu.

And Dean of the Cathedral of the Holy Cross, The Very Revd Canon Charley Thomas gave tribute to God for the gracious opportunity of gathering a nation to celebrate the rebuilding of God's house, namely, the Anglican Cathedral of the Holy Cross.

Said Canon Thomas: “We thank God for this day and for this opportunity he has given us to gather as a nation to celebrate the rebuilding of God's house, the Cathedral of the Holy Cross.”

Canon Thomas reminisced that the Cathedral was built in the fifties through the vision and dedication of people like Oliver Green-Wilkinson who because the first Bishop of the now Province of Central Africa encompassing Botswana, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

“Bishop's Oliver's father was the Chaplain to the Royal Family at St. George's Chapel at Windsor and therefore had a lot of influence which in no measure, contributed to the goodwill in mobilising funds to build the Cathedral. The construction of the Cathedral commenced in 1946 when the need for a Cathedral in the then Northern Rhodesia was discussed at a Synod meeting and that decision was communicated to the Church of England, the mother body for Anglican Churches in the world,” recollected Canon Thomas

Canon Thomas added that the Church of England set up a fund and made the first contribution of one hundred pounds to that fund, marking the start of a zealous fund raising effort to which all contributed- the Government, civil society, the community and individuals.

 

All Saints, Gazeley, Suffolk.

 

There was never any doubt I would go to Rob's funeral. Rob was born just two weeks before me, and in our many meetings, we found we had so much in common.

 

A drive to Ipswich should be something like only two and a half hours, but with the Dartford Crossing that could balloon to four or more.

 

My choice was to leave early, soon after Jools left for work, or wait to near nine once rush hour was over. If I was up early, I'd leave early, I said.

 

Which is what happened.

 

So, after coffee and Jools leaving, I loaded my camera stuff in the car, not bothering to program in a destination, as I knew the route to Suffolk so well.

 

Checking the internet I found the M2 was closed, so that meant taking the M20, which I like as it runs beside HS2, although over the years, vegetation growth now hides most of it, and with Eurostar cutting services due to Brexit, you're lucky to see a train on the line now.

 

I had a phone loaded with podcasts, so time flew by, even if travelling through the endless roadworks at 50mph seemed to take forever.

 

Dartford was jammed. But we inched forward, until as the bridge came in sight, traffic moved smoothly, and I followed the traffic down into the east bore of the tunnel.

 

Another glorious morning for travel, the sun shone from a clear blue sky, even if traffic was heavy, but I had time, so not pressing on like I usually do, making the drive a pleasant one.

 

Up through Essex, where most other traffic turned off at Stanstead, then up to the A11 junction, with it being not yet nine, I had several hours to fill before the ceremony.

 

I stopped at Cambridge services for breakfast, then programmed the first church in: Gazeley, which is just in Suffolk on the border with Cambridgeshire.

 

I took the next junction off, took two further turnings brought be to the village, which is divided by one of the widest village streets I have ever seen.

 

It was five past nine: would the church be open?

 

I parked on the opposite side of the road, grabbed my bag and camera, limped over, passing a warden putting new notices in the parish notice board. We exchange good mornings, and I walk to the porch.

 

The inner door was unlocked, and the heavy door swung after turning the metal ring handle.

 

I had made a list of four churches from Simon's list of the top 60 Suffolk churches, picking those on or near my route to Ipswich and which piqued my interest.

 

Here, it was the reset mediaeval glass.

 

Needless to say, I had the church to myself, the centuries hanging heavy inside as sunlight flooded in filling the Chancel with warm golden light.

 

Windows had several devotional dials carved in the surrounding stone, and a huge and "stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast" which caught my eye.

 

A display in the Chancel was of the decoration of the wooden roof above where panels contained carved beasts, some actual and some mythical.

 

I photographed them all.

 

----------------------------------------------------

 

All Saints is a large, remarkably good church in one of the sleepy, fat villages along the Cambridgeshire border, the sort of place you cycle through and imagine wistfully that you've won the lottery and could move there. The wide churchyard on both sides is a perfect setting for the church, which rises to heaven out of a perpendicular splendour of aisles, clerestories and battlements. The tower was complete by the 1470s when money was being left for a bell. The earlier chancel steadies the ship, anchoring it to earth quietly, although the tall east window has its spectacular moment too. And you step into a deliciously well-kept interior, full of interest.

One of the most significant medieval survivals here is not easily noticed. This is the range of 15th Century glass, which was reset by the Victorians high in the clerestory. This seems a curious thing to have done, since it defeats the purpose of a clerestory, but if they had not done so then we might have lost it. The glass matches the tracery in the north aisle windows, so that is probably where they came from. There are angels, three Saints and some shields, most of which are heraldic but two show the instruments of the passion and the Holy Trinity. I would not be surprised to learn that some of the shields are 19th century, but the figures are all original late 15th or early 16th century. The Saints are an unidentified Bishop, the hacksaw-wielding St Faith and one of my favourites, St Apollonia. She it was who was invoked by medieval people against toothache.

 

Waling from the nave up into the chancel, the space created by the clearing of clutter makes it at once mysterious and beautiful. Above, the early 16th century waggon roof is Suffolk's best of its kind. Mortlock points out the little angels bearing scrolls, the wheat ears and the vine sprays, and the surviving traces of colour. The low side window on the south side still has its hinges, for here it was that updraught to the rood would have sent the candles flickering in the mystical church of the 14th century. On the south side of the sanctuary is an exquisitely carved arched recess, that doesn't appear to have ever had a door, and may have been a very rare purpose-built Easter sepulchre at the time of the 1330s rebuilding. Opposite is a huge and stunningly beautiful piscina, and beside it are sedilia that end in an arm rest carved in the shape of a beast. It is one of the most significant Decorated moments in Suffolk.

 

On the floor of the chancel there is a tiny, perfect chalice brass, one of only two surviving in Suffolk. The other is at Rendham. Not far away is the indent of another chalice brass - or perhaps it was for the same one, and the brass has been moved for some reason. There are two chalice indents at Westhall, but nowhere else in Suffolk. Chalice brasses were popular memorials for Priests in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and thus were fair game for reformers. Heigham memorials of the late 16th century are on the walls. Back in the south aisle there is a splendid tombchest in Purbeck marble. It has lost its brasses, but the indents show us where they were, as do other indents in the aisle floors. Some heraldic brass shields survive, and show that Heighams were buried here. Brass inscriptions survive in the nave and the chancel, dating from the late 16th and early 17th centuries.

 

The 14th century font is a good example of the tracery pattern series that appeared in the decades before the Black Death. They may have been intended to spread ideas at that time of great artistic and intellectual flowering before it was so cruelly snatched away. The cover is 17th Century. At this end of the nave are two good ranges of medieval benches, one, rare in East Anglia, is a group of 14th Century benches with pierced tracery backs. Some of them appear to spell out words, and Mortlock thought one might say Salaman Sayet. The block of benches to the north appears to be 15th Century or possibly early 16th Century. Further north, the early 17th Century benches are simpler, even cruder, and were likely the work of the village carpenter.

 

All rather lovely then. And yet, it hasn't always been that way. All Saints at Gazeley, near Newmarket, was the first church that I visited after an international team of scientists conclusively proved that God did not exist began the first page for this church that I wrote in 2003, in a satirical mood after finding the church locked and at a very low ebb. At a time when congregations were generally falling, I'd been thinking about the future of medieval churches beyond a time when they would have people to use them in the traditional way. I wondered if the buildings might find new uses, or could adapt themselves to changing patterns and emphases in Christianity, or even changing spiritual needs of their parishes. Even if science could somehow prove that God did not exist, I suggested, there were parishes which would rise to the challenge and reinvent themselves, as churches have always done over the two millennia of Christianity. Coming to Gazeley I felt that here was a church which felt as if it had been abandoned. And yet, it seemed to me a church of such significance, such historical and spiritual importance, that its loss would be a disaster. If it had been clean, tidy and open at the time he was visiting, Simon Jenkins England's Thousand Best Churches would not have been able to resist it. Should the survival of such a treasure store depend upon the existence of God or the continued practice of the Christian faith? Or might there be other reasons to keep this extraordinary building in something like its present integrity?

 

In the first decade of the 21st Century, Gazeley church went on a tremendous journey, from being moribund to being the wonderful church you can visit today. If you want to read the slightly adapted 2006 entry for Gazeley, recounting this journey, you can do so here. Coming back here today always fills me with optimism for what can be achieved. On one occasion I mentioned my experiences of Gazeley church to a Catholic Priest friend of mine, and he said he hoped I knew I'd seen the power of the Holy Spirit at work. And perhaps that is so. Certainly, the energy and imagination of the people here have been fired by something. On that occasion I had wanted to find someone to ask about it, to find out how things stood now. But there was no one, and so the building spoke for them.

 

Back outside in the graveyard, the dog daisies clustered and waved their sun-kissed faces in the light breeze. The ancient building must have known many late-May days like this over the centuries, but think of all the changes that it has known inside! The general buffeting of the winds of history still leaves room for local squalls and lightning strikes. All Saints has known these, but for now a blessed calm reigns here. Long may it remain so.

 

Simon Knott, June 2019

 

www.suffolkchurches.co.uk/gazeley.htm

Fonte dell'immagine: Il Lampo da Levante

 

Condizioni d'Uso: Avviso legale e condizioni per l’uso

  

C’è un modo per risolvere l’arroganza

  

Xiaochen Città di Zhengzhou, Provincia di Henan

 

L’arroganza è il mio difetto principale. Ero solita rivelare frequentemente la mia indole arrogante, pensando sempre di essere migliore delle altre persone. Specialmente quando correggevo articoli o parlavo di lavoro con un partner, ero sempre presuntuosa e non ascoltavo con modestia le loro opinioni. La mia incapacità di collaborare con armonia con i miei partner, mi causò spesso problemi sul lavoro. I fratelli e le sorelle mi avevano sollevato la questione molte volte e, inoltre, leggevo regolarmente di Dio che rivela la natura arrogante delle persone. Ma visto che non avevo ancora raggiunto una vera comprensione della mia propria indole ed essenza e che, quindi, neanche potevo davvero odiare questo mio modo di fare, ogni volta che mi imbattevo in una situazione calzante, perdevo il controllo. Dopo, mi sentivo sempre alquanto disgustata, ma visto che quel che è fatto è fatto, tutto quello che potevo fare era continuare a tentare di comprendere. E successe di nuovo e di nuovo. Mi faceva sentire umiliata e inetta.

 

Una volta, mentre praticavo la devozione spirituale, vidi le seguenti parole di Dio: “Come dovresti correggere la tua natura umana? Prima di tutto, devi conoscere questa natura, nonché la parola e la volontà di Dio. Come puoi garantire al massimo che non compirai cattive azioni e farai solo ciò che è conforme alla verità? Se vuoi cambiare, devi riflettere su questo aspetto. Riguardo alla tua natura imperfetta, quale genere di indole corrotta possiedi e di quali atti sei capace, quale approccio può essere adottato e come si può mettere in pratica per tenerle sotto controllo: questi sono gli interrogativi cruciali. […] Lin Zexu ha un carattere cattivo. Conformemente alle sue debolezze, ha scritto una massima nella sua stanza: ‘Controlla il tuo carattere’. Questo è un approccio umano, ma è davvero efficace. Ognuno ha i propri principi pratici e così anche tu dovresti formulare una serie di principi in relazione alla tua natura. Tali principi sono necessari, ed è impensabile non averli. Questo dovrebbe anche essere il motto per il tuo codice di condotta nella fede in Dio” (“Mettere in pratica la verità e risolvere il problema della natura umana” in Registrazione dei discorsi di Cristo). Le parole di Dio mi diedero un cammino immediato che potevo intraprendere. Capii: per cambiare un’indole ribelle, da una parte devi nutrirti spesso delle parole in cui Dio rivela l’essenza umana corrotta e dall’altra devi concentrarti su una massima per controllare la tua natura, così che tu possa consapevolmente tenere sotto controllo le sue manifestazioni, che ti portano ad abbandonare la pratica della verità. Perciò, in relazione agli aspetti della mia corruzione come la mia indole arrogante, il moralismo e la riluttanza ad ascoltare le opinioni dei partner, formulai una massima: “Come può un mucchio di letame essere fiero del proprio puzzo?” Ogni volta che discutevo di una questione con i miei partner, avrei prima di tutto usato questa massima per mettermi in guardia, ricordando fermamente che la mia essenza è letame e che il mio corpo è interamente ricoperto di puzza. Avrei anche ricordato come avevo causato tanti problemi lavorativi con la mia arroganza e il mio ego e che, quindi, non c’era assolutamente nessun motivo per essere arrogante. In questo modo non avrei potuto sostenere di essere sempre assolutamente nel giusto e ciò mi avrebbe anche donato un pizzico di curiosità nel cuore, rendendomi disposta a ridimensionarmi e ad ascoltare le opinioni degli altri. A volte volevo ancora rifiutare i punti di vista altrui, ma appena pensavo alla massima, rinunciavo consapevolmente a me stessa e praticavo la verità di una coordinazione armoniosa.

 

Qualche tempo dopo scoprii sorprendentemente che, quando mi umiliavo, ricevevo un po’ d’ispirazione e illuminazione dello Spirito Santo dalla comunicazione dei miei partner e vedevo alcuni degli aspetti assurdi del mio ricevere la verità. Allo stesso tempo, scoprivo anche alcuni dei punti di forza degli altri ed ero disposta ad attingere a loro per completare me stessa. Inoltre, non pensavo di essere migliore degli altri in ogni cosa e abbassavo anche la mia testa piena di presunzione. Rinunciare a me stessa non era doloroso come prima, e sentivo dentro al cuore che umiliarmi e ascoltare modestamente le opinioni dei miei partner era piuttosto bello, non solo per il vantaggio dell’evoluzione della mia vita personale, ma anche per il miglioramento dei risultati del nostro lavoro, compensando le mancanze reciproche e diventando un tutt’uno.

 

Attraverso questa esperienza, assaporai la dolcezza di mettere in pratica la verità e compresi che formulare un motto avrebbe potuto rendermi consapevole di fronte alle dimostrazioni della mia corruzione, non solo riducendo le mie trasgressioni, ma anche guadagnando maggiori opportunità di capire la verità. Allo stesso tempo, realizzai inoltre che le passate dimostrazioni della mia indole arrogante erano troppo brutte e disgustose. Grazie Dio per avermi guidata a conoscere queste cose. Da ora in avanti formulerò massime corrispondenti ai vari aspetti della mia corruzione e mi frenerò, così da poter mettere in pratica la verità. Inoltre, leggerò spesso la parola di Dio per conoscere l’essenza della mia natura, di modo da poter odiare profondamente me stessa e liberarmi della mia corruzione il prima possibile per soddisfare Dio.

 

Fonte: Il Lampo da Levante